Conditional Immortality: A Biblical and Theological Analysis Based on Edward Fudge’s Work

This research report examines Edward Fudge’s biblical and theological arguments for conditional immortality (CI) as presented in his groundbreaking work “The Fire That Consumes.” As a conservative biblical Christian who believes in God’s mercy extending beyond death, I will explore how Fudge’s careful exegesis supports both the ultimate destruction of the wicked and the possibility of postmortem salvation opportunities. This analysis focuses exclusively on scriptural and theological arguments, demonstrating how these doctrines align with God’s character of justice and mercy.

I. Understanding Edward Fudge and His Impact

Edward Fudge, who earned degrees in Biblical Languages from Abilene Christian University, revolutionized evangelical discussions about hell with his 1982 publication of “The Fire That Consumes.” This work, now in its third edition, remains the definitive defense of conditional immortality in evangelical theology.

“It was six pages near the end of the book that exploded like a bombshell within evangelicalism… traditionalists, who make up most of evangelicalism, were shocked.”

– Robert Peterson, Christianity Today

The impact of Fudge’s work cannot be overstated. F.F. Bruce, the renowned New Testament scholar, wrote the foreword to the first edition. Richard Bauckham later called it “a standard work to which everyone engaged with this issue will constantly return.” Christianity Today acknowledged it as “the standard reference on annihilationism.”

What makes Fudge’s work so powerful is his commitment to letting Scripture speak for itself. As one scholar noted, “The book commendably presents an actual argument reasoned carefully and plainly from evidence.” Unlike many theological works that rely on philosophical speculation, Fudge built his case directly from biblical texts.

II. The Biblical Foundation for Conditional Immortality

A. The Nature of Immortality in Scripture

Fudge’s first major biblical argument centers on the nature of immortality itself. The Bible consistently teaches that God alone possesses immortality by nature:

“…God, the blessed and only Ruler, the King of kings and Lord of lords, who alone is immortal” (1 Timothy 6:15-16)

This fundamental truth shapes everything else. If only God is inherently immortal, then human immortality must be a gift, not a natural possession. The word “immortality” appears only five times in the New Testament – always referring to God, Christ, or believers who receive it as a gift. Never is it applied to unbelievers or the wicked.

“The Greek doctrine of immortality has affected theology unduly on this point. It is one of several examples where there has been an undue Hellenization of Christian doctrine. The idea of souls being naturally immortal is not a biblical one.”

– Clark Pinnock

Fudge demonstrates that the traditional view of the immortal soul comes not from Hebrew Scripture but from Greek philosophy, particularly Plato’s teachings. As the Jewish Encyclopedia states:

“The belief that the soul continues its existence after the dissolution of the body is a matter of philosophical and theological speculation rather than of simple truth, and is accordingly nowhere taught in Holy Scripture.”

– Jewish Encyclopedia, 1925

B. The Language of Destruction

Fudge’s second major argument focuses on the consistent biblical language describing the fate of the wicked. The Bible repeatedly uses terms of destruction, not eternal torment:

• Apollumi (to destroy) and apoleia (destruction) – These Greek words appear frequently when describing the final fate of the wicked
• Olethros (ruin, destruction, death) – Used in passages like 2 Thessalonians 1:9
• Death – “The wages of sin is death” (Romans 6:23), not eternal conscious torment

Jesus himself warned clearly about this destruction:

“Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell.” (Matthew 10:28)

As Fudge points out, when Jesus uses the word “destroy” here, he means exactly that – to bring to an end, not to torment forever. If the soul were inherently immortal, it could not be destroyed. But Jesus explicitly states that God can and will destroy both body and soul in Gehenna.

III. Old Testament Foundations

One of the strengths of Fudge’s work is his careful attention to the Old Testament background that shapes New Testament teaching. He demonstrates that the concept of final destruction runs throughout Hebrew Scripture.

A. The Pattern of Divine Judgment

Fudge shows how God’s judgments in the Old Testament consistently result in destruction, not eternal torment:

• The Flood – The wicked were destroyed, not tormented forever (Genesis 6-9)
• Sodom and Gomorrah – Reduced to ashes as “an example of what is going to happen to the ungodly” (2 Peter 2:6)
• The Exodus – Pharaoh and his army were destroyed in the Red Sea
• The Exile – A pattern of judgment leading to destruction, followed by restoration for the remnant

These patterns establish God’s consistent way of dealing with sin – it leads to death and destruction, not endless conscious suffering.

B. Isaiah’s Vision of Final Judgment

Fudge pays special attention to Isaiah 66:24, which Jesus quotes when speaking of Gehenna:

“And they will go out and look on the dead bodies of those who rebelled against me; the worms that eat them will not die, the fire that burns them will not be quenched, and they will be loathsome to all mankind.” (Isaiah 66:24)

Notice carefully: Isaiah speaks of “dead bodies,” not living souls in torment. The unquenchable fire and undying worms consume corpses, not torture conscious beings. This imagery of complete destruction, not eternal torment, shapes Jesus’ own teaching about Gehenna.

IV. New Testament Evidence

A. The Teaching of Jesus

Fudge demonstrates that Jesus consistently taught the destruction of the wicked, using various images:

• Fire that consumes – Like chaff thrown into fire (Matthew 3:12)
• The broad road – Leading to destruction, not torment (Matthew 7:13-14)
• Weeds burned up – Completely consumed in the furnace (Matthew 13:40-42)
• Gehenna – The valley where garbage was destroyed, not preserved

Jesus’ parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31) is often cited as evidence for eternal torment. However, Fudge notes that this parable occurs in Hades (the intermediate state), not in the final judgment. The rich man’s brothers are still alive, showing this is before the resurrection and final judgment.

B. Paul’s Teaching

The Apostle Paul consistently describes the fate of the wicked as death and destruction:

“For the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.” (Romans 6:23)

Paul contrasts death with eternal life – not eternal torment with eternal bliss. He writes of those who “will be punished with everlasting destruction” (2 Thessalonians 1:9), using the Greek word olethros, which means ruin or death.

“Paul stresses a sequence in man’s glorification which Calvin altogether missed. Humankind is first mortal, in the image of Adam; only at the end are the redeemed made immortal, in the image of the heavenly Christ.”

– From analysis of 1 Corinthians 15

V. Theological Arguments for Conditional Immortality

A. The Character of God

Fudge addresses the moral dimension of eternal torment versus conditional immortality. The traditional view presents significant challenges to understanding God’s character:

“Everlasting torment is intolerable from a moral point of view because it makes God into a bloodthirsty monster who maintains an everlasting Auschwitz for victims whom he does not even allow to die.”

– Clark Pinnock

Conditional immortality, by contrast, presents God as just and merciful. He offers eternal life to all who will receive it, but allows those who reject Him to cease existing rather than tormenting them forever. This aligns with the biblical principle of proportionate justice – the punishment fits the crime.

B. The Victory of Christ

Fudge argues that conditional immortality better reflects Christ’s complete victory over sin and death. Scripture promises that God will be “all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28) and that death itself will be destroyed (1 Corinthians 15:26). How can this be true if sin, death, and rebellion continue forever in hell?

The traditional view requires two eternal kingdoms – God’s and Satan’s. But the Bible envisions complete victory where evil is entirely eliminated:

“He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away.” (Revelation 21:4)

VI. Postmortem Opportunity Within Conditional Immortality

While Fudge himself focused primarily on the nature of final punishment, his framework of conditional immortality is entirely compatible with – and even supportive of – postmortem opportunity for salvation. This combination presents a coherent biblical theology of God’s justice and mercy.

A. Biblical Basis for Postmortem Opportunity

Several passages suggest God’s salvific work extends beyond death:

“For Christ also suffered once for sins, the righteous for the unrighteous, to bring you to God. He was put to death in the body but made alive in the Spirit. After being made alive, he went and made proclamation to the imprisoned spirits.” (1 Peter 3:18-19)

This mysterious passage has been interpreted various ways, but many scholars see it as Christ proclaiming salvation to those who had died. Similarly, 1 Peter 4:6 states:

“For this is the reason the gospel was preached even to those who are now dead, so that they might be judged according to human standards in regard to the body, but live according to God in regard to the spirit.”

These texts suggest that death is not necessarily the absolute end of salvific opportunity. God’s mercy may extend to those who never had a genuine opportunity to respond to the gospel in this life.

B. Categories of Postmortem Opportunity Recipients

Within a conditional immortality framework, several groups might receive postmortem opportunity:

1. The Unevangelized – Those who never heard the gospel through no fault of their own
2. The Pseudoevangelized – Those who heard a distorted gospel that misrepresented God’s character
3. Those with Cognitive Limitations – People unable to comprehend the gospel due to mental disabilities
4. Infants and Young Children – Those who died before reaching the age of accountability

This is not a “second chance” for those who clearly rejected Christ, but rather a first genuine opportunity for those who never truly had one. As Donald Bloesch wrote, this affirms “the universality of a first chance, an opportunity for salvation for those who have never heard the gospel in its fullness.”

C. The Timing and Nature of Postmortem Opportunity

Within conditional immortality, postmortem opportunity could occur at several points:

• At the moment of death – A final revelation of Christ’s true character
• In the intermediate state – During the period between death and resurrection
• At the final judgment – When all stand before Christ

This opportunity would not continue indefinitely. Those who reject God’s final revelation would face the “second death” – complete destruction of body and soul, as Jesus warned in Matthew 10:28.

VII. The Second Death and Final Destruction

A. The Nature of the Second Death

Fudge carefully explains that the “second death” mentioned in Revelation is exactly what it sounds like – a death from which there is no resurrection. It is the complete and final end of existence for those who reject God’s gift of eternal life.

“But the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars—they will be consigned to the fiery lake of burning sulfur. This is the second death.” (Revelation 21:8)

Notice that John explicitly interprets the “lake of fire” as “the second death.” This is not eternal conscious torment but the final end of existence for the wicked.

B. The Process of Final Judgment

Within a framework combining conditional immortality and postmortem opportunity, the final judgment would proceed as follows:

1. Universal Resurrection – All people, righteous and wicked, are raised (John 5:28-29)
2. Final Opportunity – Those who never had genuine opportunity receive clear revelation
3. Definitive Choice – Each person makes their final decision for or against God
4. Judgment Pronounced – Christ separates sheep from goats (Matthew 25:31-46)
5. Eternal Destinies – The righteous receive immortality; the wicked face the second death

This preserves both God’s justice (all have genuine opportunity) and human freedom (each person chooses their destiny).

C. The Finality of Destruction

The destruction of the wicked is permanent and irreversible. As Fudge emphasizes, terms like “eternal punishment” (Matthew 25:46) refer to punishment that is eternal in its consequences, not its duration. Just as “eternal redemption” (Hebrews 9:12) doesn’t mean we are being redeemed forever, “eternal punishment” means the results last forever.

Those who finally reject God cease to exist. They are not preserved in torment but completely destroyed – body and soul. This is the ultimate consequence of rejecting the source of life itself.

VIII. Near-Death Experiences and Conditional Immortality

The phenomenon of near-death experiences (NDEs) provides an interesting perspective on the afterlife that can be understood within Fudge’s conditional immortality framework.

A. The Nature of NDEs

Near-death experiences are reported visions of those whose souls appear to leave their bodies while close to death. These have become more common with improved medical care that brings people back from clinical death. However, we must be careful about building doctrine on subjective experiences.

“While I do not discount the authenticity of some of these out of body experiences as encounters with the spiritual realm, I do not believe that we should let these subjective experiences have any influence upon the formation of our doctrines concerning the after-life when these experiences are not in agreement with the Scriptures.”

– From The Triumph of Mercy

B. NDEs Within a CI Framework

If we accept that some NDEs may reflect genuine spiritual experiences, they could fit within conditional immortality in several ways:

• Intermediate State Glimpses – NDEs might show the intermediate state (Hades/Paradise) rather than final destinies
• Divine Mercy in Action – Some report being rescued from darkness by Jesus, suggesting ongoing salvific work
• Warning and Invitation – Negative NDEs might serve as warnings, calling people to repentance
• Temporary, Not Final – Since these people return to life, they haven’t experienced the irreversible second death

Howard Storm’s NDE is particularly relevant. He reported experiencing “gnashing teeth in outer darkness” before Jesus rescued him. This aligns with Christ having “the keys of death and Hades” (Revelation 1:18) and continuing to seek and save the lost.

C. Cautions Regarding NDEs

While NDEs are fascinating, Fudge’s approach reminds us to test everything by Scripture. Many NDE reports contradict biblical teaching, suggesting all religions lead to God or that holiness isn’t necessary. We must remember:

“Jesus answered, ‘I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.'” (John 14:6)

Scripture, not experience, must be our final authority. NDEs may provide interesting perspectives, but they cannot override clear biblical teaching about salvation through Christ alone and the reality of final judgment.

IX. Supporting Voices from Church History and Contemporary Theology

A. Early Church Witnesses

Fudge demonstrates that conditional immortality has ancient roots. Several early church fathers taught that immortality is conditional:

“God delays causing the confusion and destruction of the whole world, by which the wicked angels and demons and men shall cease to exist… For this reason souls both die and are punished.”

– Justin Martyr

“If [Adam] kept the command of God, then he would always remain as he was, that is, immortal; but if he did not, he would become mortal, melting into the earth, whence his frame had been taken.”

– Irenaeus

These early witnesses show that conditional immortality was not a later innovation but was present from the beginning of church history.

B. Modern Evangelical Support

Since Fudge’s work, many respected evangelical scholars have embraced conditional immortality:

• John Stott – One of the most influential evangelical leaders of the 20th century
• Clark Pinnock – Noted theologian who acknowledged his debt to Fudge’s research
• Philip Hughes – Author of “The True Image” defending conditionalism
• John Wenham – British evangelical scholar
• I. Howard Marshall – Renowned New Testament scholar
• Richard Bauckham – Leading biblical scholar
• N.T. Wright – While not fully embracing CI, acknowledges its biblical merit

These scholars represent mainstream evangelical thought, demonstrating that conditional immortality is not a fringe position but a legitimate biblical interpretation.

X. Theological Implications and Benefits

A. A More Biblical Anthropology

Conditional immortality returns us to a biblical view of human nature. Rather than the Greek dualism of immortal soul and mortal body, Scripture presents humans as unified beings who are wholly dependent on God for life.

This has profound implications:

• Death is truly the enemy, not a friend releasing the soul
• Resurrection is essential, not optional
• Eternal life is genuinely a gift, not a natural right
• Our hope is in Christ, not in our own immortal nature

B. Enhanced Motivation for Evangelism

Contrary to critics’ claims, combining conditional immortality with postmortem opportunity actually enhances evangelistic motivation:

1. Urgency Remains – People need the gospel now for abundant life, not just afterlife
2. Hope Increases – We can trust God’s justice for those we couldn’t reach
3. Message Clarifies – We proclaim life in Christ, not just escape from torment
4. God’s Character Shines – We present a God of perfect justice and mercy

C. Resolution of Theological Tensions

This framework resolves several longstanding theological problems:

• The Problem of Evil – Evil is finally and completely destroyed, not eternally preserved
• Divine Victory – God truly becomes “all in all” with no rival kingdom of darkness
• Perfect Justice – Punishment is proportionate; opportunity is universal
• Genuine Love – God doesn’t torture His creatures eternally but allows them to choose non-existence

XI. Responding to Common Objections

A. “Eternal Punishment” in Matthew 25:46

Critics often cite Jesus’ words about “eternal punishment” as proof of eternal torment. However, Fudge explains that “eternal” (aionios) refers to the permanence of the punishment’s results, not its duration. Consider parallel uses:

• “Eternal redemption” (Hebrews 9:12) – We’re not being redeemed forever
• “Eternal judgment” (Hebrews 6:2) – The judging doesn’t continue forever
• “Eternal destruction” (2 Thessalonians 1:9) – The destroying process ends, but results are permanent

B. The Rich Man and Lazarus

This parable (Luke 16:19-31) describes the intermediate state, not final punishment. Key evidence:

• The rich man’s brothers are still alive
• This occurs in Hades, not Gehenna (final hell)
• It’s before resurrection and final judgment
• The focus is on the danger of wealth and need for repentance, not the nature of hell

C. Revelation’s “Tormented Forever”

Revelation uses symbolic, apocalyptic language. When it says the beast, false prophet, and devil are “tormented forever” (Revelation 20:10), we must remember:

• These are symbolic figures, not necessarily individual persons
• Revelation interprets its own symbols – the lake of fire is “the second death” (20:14)
• Old Testament background (Isaiah 34:9-10) uses similar “forever” language for temporal destruction
• The same passage says death and Hades are thrown into the lake of fire – abstract concepts being “tormented”?

XII. Practical Application for Christian Life

A. Preaching and Teaching

This understanding transforms how we present the gospel:

1. Focus on Life – Emphasize that Christ offers eternal life, not just escape from torment
2. Present God’s Character – Show God as just and merciful, not cruel
3. Use Biblical Language – Speak of destruction and death as the Bible does
4. Maintain Hope – Trust God’s justice for those beyond our reach

B. Pastoral Care

This framework provides comfort in difficult situations:

• Parents of deceased children – Can trust God’s perfect justice and mercy
• Those with unsaved loved ones – Hope that God will provide genuine opportunity
• Missionaries – Freed from the burden of being people’s only chance
• The grieving – Can focus on resurrection hope rather than immediate afterlife speculation

C. Personal Faith

This understanding deepens our relationship with God:

• We appreciate eternal life as the precious gift it truly is
• We trust God’s character more fully
• We long for Christ’s return and the resurrection
• We live in hope, not fear

XIII. Conclusion: The Fire That Consumes and the God Who Saves

Edward Fudge’s meticulous biblical scholarship in “The Fire That Consumes” has provided the church with a thoroughly scriptural understanding of final punishment. His work demonstrates that conditional immortality is not a compromise with modern sensibilities but a return to biblical teaching.

When combined with the biblical hope of postmortem opportunity, we see a complete picture of God’s character:

“The Lord is not slow in keeping his promise, as some understand slowness. Instead he is patient with you, not wanting anyone to perish, but everyone to come to repentance.” (2 Peter 3:9)

God genuinely desires all to be saved. He provides genuine opportunity to all. Those who finally reject Him face the second death – complete destruction, not eternal torment. This is not because God is weak or permissive, but because He respects human freedom while maintaining perfect justice.

The fire truly consumes – it doesn’t preserve in torment. Death is truly the last enemy to be destroyed. And in the end, God will be “all in all,” with no corner of creation reserved for eternal rebellion and suffering.

This understanding enhances rather than diminishes the gospel message. Christ’s victory is complete. His offer of eternal life is genuine and precious. His character is perfectly just and merciful. And His kingdom will have no rival for eternity.

As we continue to study Scripture with open hearts and minds, may we, like Edward Fudge, be willing to let God’s Word challenge our traditions and transform our understanding. The truth about conditional immortality and God’s ultimate victory over evil gives us hope, strengthens our faith, and motivates us to share the genuine good news of eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.

“For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.” (John 3:16)

Bibliography and Recommended Reading

Primary Sources by Edward Fudge:

• Fudge, Edward W. The Fire That Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of Final Punishment. Third Edition. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2011.
• Fudge, Edward W. Hell: A Final Word. Abilene, TX: Leafwood Publishers, 2012.
• Fudge, Edward W. and Robert A. Peterson. Two Views of Hell: A Biblical & Theological Dialogue. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000.

Supporting Works on Conditional Immortality:

• Date, Christopher M., Gregory G. Stump, and Joshua W. Anderson, eds. Rethinking Hell: Readings in Evangelical Conditionalism. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2014.
• Date, Christopher M. and Ron Highfield, eds. A Consuming Passion: Essays on Hell and Immortality in Honor of Edward Fudge. Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2015.
• Pinnock, Clark H. “The Conditional View.” In Four Views on Hell, edited by William Crockett. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
• Stott, John, and David L. Edwards. Evangelical Essentials: A Liberal-Evangelical Dialogue. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1988.

On Postmortem Opportunity:

• Tiessen, Terrance L. Who Can Be Saved? Reassessing Salvation in Christ and World Religions. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
• Sanders, John. No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Unevangelized. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.
• Walls, Jerry L. Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory: Rethinking the Things That Matter Most. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2015.

Historical and Theological Context:

• Bauckham, Richard. “The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses.” Leiden: Brill, 1998.
• Wright, N.T. Surprised by Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church. New York: HarperOne, 2008.
• Green, Joel B. Body, Soul, and Human Life: The Nature of Humanity in the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.