Appendix C
This glossary defines the major theological, philosophical, biblical, and linguistic terms used throughout the book. Hebrew and Greek terms are transliterated in italics, followed by their English meaning and significance for the book’s argument. Terms are organized alphabetically. Chapter numbers in parentheses indicate where the term receives its fullest treatment.
Aionios (Greek: αἰωνιος)
A Greek adjective typically translated “eternal” or “everlasting” in English Bibles. However, the word does not inherently mean “infinite duration.” Its root is aion (age, era), and it means “pertaining to the age” or “of the age to come.” When Jesus speaks of kolasis aionios in Matthew 25:46, it is not necessarily “punishment lasting forever” but rather “punishment belonging to the age to come”—the quality and finality of the judgment, not necessarily its infinite duration. This distinction is critical for the debate between ECT, CI, and UR. The earliest Greek-speaking Fathers, who understood the language natively, were far more diverse in their views of hell than the Latin tradition, which translated aionios as aeternus (“eternal”) and lost the nuance. (Chapters 10, 13, 25)
Annihilationism
The view that the final fate of the unsaved is complete destruction—they cease to exist rather than suffering conscious torment forever. Annihilationism is closely related to conditional immortality (CI), and the two terms are often used interchangeably, though some make a distinction: annihilationism focuses on the outcome (the wicked are annihilated), while CI focuses on the underlying principle (immortality is conditional, not inherent). In this book, the term “conditional immortality” is preferred because it better captures the theological basis: God alone has immortality (1 Tim. 6:16), and eternal life is a gift given only in Christ. Those who finally reject Christ are not sustained in torment but are destroyed—body and soul—by the consuming fire of God’s love. Key advocates include Edward Fudge, John Stott, Clark Pinnock, and the Rethinking Hell movement. (Chapters 3, 12, 30)
See also: conditional immortality, second death.
Apokatastasis (Greek: ἀποκατάστασις)
A Greek term meaning “restoration” or “restitution of all things.” It appears in Acts 3:21, where Peter speaks of the “restoration of all things” that God has promised. In the early church, the term became associated with the doctrine of universal restoration—the belief that God will eventually reconcile all things and all people to Himself, including those in hell. Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335–395) was the most prominent early advocate of apokatastasis, arguing in On the Soul and the Resurrection that God’s purifying fire will eventually remove all evil from every soul. The Fifth Ecumenical Council (553) condemned certain forms of universalism associated with Origenism, though whether it condemned apokatastasis as such is debated by scholars. In this book, apokatastasis is treated as a genuine theological hope that deserves respectful engagement, even though the author leans toward conditional immortality. (Chapters 13, 15, 30)
See also: universal reconciliation, universalism.
Choice Model
The view, associated primarily with C. S. Lewis and Jerry Walls, that hell is not imposed by God but is freely chosen by those who reject Him. On this view, hell is “locked from the inside” (Lewis, The Great Divorce). God respects human freedom absolutely, and those in hell are there because they prefer their own way to God’s. The strength of the choice model is that it protects God’s character by making hell a human decision rather than a divine punishment. Its weakness, as R. Zachary Manis argues, is that it overestimates human freedom and underestimates the power of self-deception. The person who “chooses” hell does so under conditions of profound spiritual blindness—they do not see clearly what they are choosing. The divine presence model incorporates the choice model’s insight about freedom while adding the crucial role of self-deception and the hardening of the heart. (Chapters 3, 11, 16, 18)
See also: divine presence model, self-deception.
Conditional Immortality (CI)
The view that human beings are not inherently immortal. Only God possesses immortality by nature (1 Tim. 6:16). Eternal life is a gift given to those who are united to Christ (2 Tim. 1:10; John 3:16). Those who finally reject Christ are not kept alive forever in torment but are destroyed—they perish, they are consumed, they undergo the “second death.” In this book, CI is distinguished from mere annihilationism by emphasizing the mechanism of destruction: on the divine presence model, the wicked are not snuffed out arbitrarily by God. They are consumed by the fire of God’s love itself. The same fire that purifies gold consumes wood. Baker’s character “Otto” illustrates this: Otto encounters God’s full presence and continues to reject Him, and the fire of God’s love consumes him—not because God wills his destruction, but because Otto cannot endure love. The author leans toward CI with a postmortem opportunity, placing the last chance at or during the final judgment. (Chapters 3, 12, 17, 29, 30)
See also: annihilationism, second death, divine presence model.
Descensus (Latin: descensus ad inferos)
Latin for “the descent to those below”—the doctrine that Christ, between His death and resurrection, descended to the realm of the dead. The Apostles’ Creed affirms this: “He descended into hell” (or better: “He descended to the dead”). The biblical basis is 1 Peter 3:18–20 (Christ “went and proclaimed to the spirits in prison”) and 1 Peter 4:6 (“the gospel was preached even to those who are dead”). On the divine presence model, the Descensus is the foundation of the postmortem opportunity: Christ entered even the realm of the dead to proclaim the gospel, demonstrating that God’s saving love reaches beyond the grave. If Christ preached to the dead, then death is not the final boundary of God’s redemptive work. (Chapters 28, 29)
See also: postmortem opportunity, intermediate state, Hades.
Divine Presence Model
The central thesis of this book. The divine presence model holds that hell is not a place of separation from God, nor a torture chamber designed by God for punishment. Rather, hell is the experience of God’s inescapable, all-consuming love by those who have hardened their hearts against Him. In the new creation, God will be “all in all” (1 Cor. 15:28)—there will be no place hidden from His presence. The righteous experience this overwhelming presence as paradise—the joy, warmth, and fulfillment of being loved by perfect Love. The wicked experience the same presence as torment—not because God has changed, but because a heart full of hatred and pride cannot bear the weight of unconditional love. The same fire that purifies the willing consumes the resistant. The difference is not in the fire. The difference is in what the fire touches. The model draws primarily from three sources: R. Zachary Manis’s philosophical articulation (Sinners in the Presence of a Loving God; Thinking Through the Problem of Hell), Sharon L. Baker’s theological synthesis (Razing Hell), and the Eastern Orthodox tradition as articulated by Alexandre Kalomiros (The River of Fire) and the Church Fathers, especially Isaac the Syrian, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil the Great, and Maximus the Confessor. The model is not a modern innovation but the recovery of the earliest Christian understanding of hell, preserved in the East and now being rediscovered in the West. It is compatible with both conditional immortality and universal reconciliation. (Chapters 2, 3, 14–20, 30–32)
See also: natural consequence model, consuming fire.
Emeth (Hebrew: אֶמֶת)
A Hebrew word meaning “faithfulness,” “truth,” “reliability,” or “trustworthiness.” Along with tsedaka (saving justice) and hesed (steadfast love), emeth forms part of the triad of terms that together define what God’s “justice” actually means in the Hebrew Bible. When Scripture says God is just, it means He is faithful to His covenant promises, reliable in His love, and true to His own character. The Western juridical model, which pictures God as a judge on a balance scale weighing offenses, is foreign to this Hebrew understanding. God’s justice (tsedaka) is exercised in faithfulness (emeth) through steadfast love (hesed). (Chapter 6)
See also: tsedaka, hesed.
Eternal Conscious Torment (ECT)
The traditional Western Christian view that the unsaved will suffer conscious, unending torment in hell for all eternity. On this view, the wicked are kept alive forever by God for the purpose of punishment. ECT has been the dominant view in Western Christianity since Augustine (354–430), and it was affirmed by Thomas Aquinas, the major Reformers (Luther, Calvin), and much of the evangelical tradition. Its key biblical texts include Matthew 25:46, Revelation 14:11, and Revelation 20:10. This book argues that ECT is incompatible with the biblical revelation of God as love (1 John 4:8), that it transforms divine justice into divine vengeance, that the key biblical terms (aionios, kolasis) do not require ECT, and that the earliest Greek-speaking Church Fathers were far more diverse on hell than the Western tradition acknowledges. The book proposes the divine presence model as a more biblically faithful, theologically coherent, and historically grounded alternative. (Chapters 3, 9, 10)
See also: aionios, kolasis, divine presence model.
Gehenna (Greek: γέεννα, from Hebrew: ge-hinnom)
The Greek form of the Hebrew ge-hinnom, meaning “Valley of Hinnom.” This was a real valley south of Jerusalem where, in Old Testament times, some Israelites practiced child sacrifice to the pagan god Molech (Jer. 7:31–32). God explicitly condemned this practice as something He never commanded. By Jesus’s day, Gehenna had become a metaphor for divine judgment and destruction. Jesus uses the word twelve times in the Gospels (e.g., Matt. 5:22, 29–30; 10:28; Mark 9:43–48), always referring to the final state after judgment—not to the intermediate state. Gehenna must be sharply distinguished from Hades: Hades is the temporary waiting place of the dead before judgment; Gehenna is the final destination after the great white throne judgment. On the divine presence model, Gehenna is not a separate torture chamber but the experience of God’s unveiled love by hearts that cannot bear it. On CI, the fire of Gehenna consumes the resistant—it is the second death. (Chapters 9, 10, 21)
See also: Hades, Lake of Fire, second death, Sheol.
Hades (Greek: ἅδης)
The Greek term for the realm of the dead, roughly equivalent to the Hebrew Sheol. In the New Testament, Hades is the intermediate state—the temporary holding place of the dead between death and the final resurrection and judgment. It is NOT the same as Gehenna or the lake of fire. The rich man in Luke 16:19–31 is in Hades, not in Gehenna. Hades is a conscious state of waiting. At the final judgment, Hades itself is thrown into the lake of fire (Rev. 20:13–14)—Hades is temporary and will cease to exist. The failure to distinguish Hades from Gehenna has caused enormous theological confusion in the Western church, leading many to read descriptions of the intermediate state (like the rich man’s torment) as descriptions of the final state. On the divine presence model, even in Hades, God’s presence is real, though not yet fully unveiled as it will be at the final judgment. (Chapters 21, 24, 27)
See also: Sheol, Gehenna, intermediate state, Lake of Fire.
Hesed (Hebrew: חֶסֶד)
A Hebrew word meaning “steadfast love,” “lovingkindness,” “mercy,” or “covenant faithfulness.” It is one of the most important words in the Old Testament for describing God’s character. Hesed is the love that will not let go—the love that pursues, that forgives, that remains faithful even when the other party breaks the covenant. Along with tsedaka (saving justice) and emeth (faithfulness), hesed defines what God’s “justice” actually means. When the Bible says God is just, it means God acts in hesed—not in cold, retributive fairness, but in passionate, covenantal love that seeks the restoration of the beloved. The divine presence model is built on this understanding of God’s character: even God’s fire is an expression of His hesed. (Chapter 6)
See also: tsedaka, emeth.
Intermediate State
The period between a person’s physical death and the final resurrection at the last day. During this period, the soul exists consciously apart from the body. For believers, the intermediate state is paradise—being “with Christ” (Luke 23:43; Phil. 1:23; 2 Cor. 5:8). For unbelievers, it is Hades—a conscious state of waiting that is distinct from the final judgment. The intermediate state presupposes substance dualism: the soul is a real, immaterial entity that can exist apart from the body by God’s sustaining power. Physicalist views, which deny the existence of an immaterial soul, struggle to account for the biblical data on the intermediate state. On the divine presence model, the intermediate state represents a partial unveiling of God’s presence—more than in earthly life, but less than the full unveiling at the final judgment. The postmortem opportunity may occur during this state or at the transition to the final judgment. (Chapters 21, 27, 28, 29)
See also: Hades, substance dualism, soul sleep, postmortem opportunity.
Kolasis (Greek: κόλασις)
A Greek word meaning “punishment,” but with a crucial nuance. In classical Greek usage (as noted by Aristotle and others), kolasis refers to corrective or remedial punishment—punishment aimed at the improvement or benefit of the one being punished. It is distinguished from timoria, which refers to retributive punishment aimed at satisfying the honor or anger of the punisher. In Matthew 25:46, Jesus uses kolasis aionios (“eternal punishment”), not timoria aionios. This word choice is significant: the punishment of the age to come is corrective in nature, not vindictive. This supports the divine presence model, where the suffering of hell is aimed at the restoration of the soul (or, if the soul will not yield, is the natural consequence of encountering love while hardened against it), rather than retribution for its own sake. (Chapters 10, 23, 25)
See also: timoria, aionios.
Lake of Fire
An image found exclusively in the book of Revelation (19:20; 20:10, 14–15; 21:8) referring to the final state of judgment. The lake of fire is explicitly identified as “the second death” (Rev. 20:14; 21:8)—a death image, not a torture-chamber image. Death and Hades themselves are thrown into the lake of fire (Rev. 20:14), meaning the lake of fire is where death itself is destroyed. On the divine presence model, the lake of fire is not a separate place from God but is the full, unveiled presence of God experienced as consuming fire by those who resist His love. The highly symbolic and apocalyptic nature of Revelation’s imagery demands careful interpretation—the lake of fire is a theological image, not a literal geographical description. (Chapters 12, 21, 26, 29)
See also: second death, Gehenna, aionios.
Natural Consequence Model
An aspect of the divine presence model, developed especially by R. Zachary Manis, which holds that the suffering of hell is not an arbitrary punishment imposed by God from outside but the natural result of a sin-hardened heart encountering the fullness of God’s love. Just as the sun does not punish the blind—the blind person simply cannot see—God does not punish the wicked. The wicked cannot endure His love. The suffering flows naturally from the condition of the soul, not from a divine decree of retribution. The Church Fathers support this reading: death is the natural consequence of separation from the source of Life (Irenaeus, Athanasius), and God’s “wrath” in Scripture is actually God allowing sin to produce its own destruction (Romans 1:24, 26, 28). Isaac the Syrian argued that God does not punish to avenge Himself, because after the resurrection, there is no more pedagogical purpose for punishment, and purely vengeful punishment would be incompatible with God’s love. (Chapters 16, 19)
See also: divine presence model, self-deception.
Nephesh (Hebrew: נֶפֶשׁ)
A Hebrew word with a wide semantic range, often translated “soul,” “life,” “self,” “person,” or “living being.” In Genesis 2:7, when God breathes into Adam, he becomes a “living nephesh”—a living being. Physicalists often argue that nephesh means “the whole embodied person” and therefore the Old Testament does not teach a separable soul. But this overreads the data. While nephesh can refer to the whole person, it also has uses that imply an inner reality distinct from the body. In any case, the Old Testament’s anthropology develops into the fuller picture of the New Testament, where psyche (the Greek equivalent) clearly refers to something that can exist apart from the body (Matt. 10:28; Rev. 6:9). The important point for this book is that the soul is real, that it can survive death, and that God can destroy it (Matt. 10:28)—it is not inherently immortal. (Chapters 12, 27)
See also: ruach, psyche, pneuma, substance dualism, physicalism.
Physicalism
The philosophical and theological view that human beings are entirely physical—there is no immaterial soul or spirit that exists apart from the body. On this view, when the body dies, the person ceases to exist until God raises them bodily at the resurrection. Some physicalists affirm “soul sleep” (the person is unconscious between death and resurrection), while others hold that God simply recreates the person at the resurrection. This book rejects physicalism for several reasons: it cannot account for the biblical data on the conscious intermediate state (Luke 23:43; Phil. 1:23; 2 Cor. 5:8; Rev. 6:9–11); it makes the postmortem opportunity difficult to ground metaphysically; and it is in tension with the divine presence model, which requires that persons continue to exist consciously between death and the final judgment. Some within the conditional immortality movement hold physicalist views, which this book respectfully engages while arguing that substance dualism provides a more satisfying account of both the biblical data and the divine presence model. (Chapters 12, 27)
See also: substance dualism, soul sleep, intermediate state.
Pneuma (Greek: πνεῦμα)
A Greek word meaning “spirit,” “breath,” or “wind.” In the New Testament, pneuma is used both for the Holy Spirit and for the human spirit. Paul sometimes distinguishes pneuma (spirit) from psyche (soul), as in 1 Thessalonians 5:23 (“spirit and soul and body”), though whether this indicates a tripartite (body-soul-spirit) or bipartite (body-soul/spirit) anthropology is debated. For the purposes of this book, what matters is that pneuma refers to the immaterial dimension of the human person—the dimension that relates to God and that survives bodily death. Jesus committed His pneuma to the Father at death (Luke 23:46), and Stephen did the same (Acts 7:59), indicating conscious personal existence beyond the body. (Chapters 12, 27)
See also: psyche, nephesh, ruach, substance dualism.
Postmortem Opportunity
The belief that God provides a genuine chance for salvation to those who did not have an adequate opportunity to respond to the gospel during their earthly lives. On this view, death is not the absolute deadline for salvation. The biblical basis includes 1 Peter 3:18–20 (Christ preaching to the spirits in prison), 1 Peter 4:6 (the gospel preached to the dead), and the Descensus clause in the Apostles’ Creed. The theological logic is straightforward: a God who is love and who desires all to be saved (1 Tim. 2:4) would not condemn those who never had a genuine chance to hear and respond. In this book, the postmortem opportunity is grounded in the divine presence model: the encounter with God’s unveiled love after death IS the opportunity. For those who never heard the gospel, this encounter is an invitation. The author holds that the last chance occurs at or during the final judgment—after that, the fate of the unrepentant is sealed, whether as destruction (CI) or eventual restoration (UR). (Chapters 28, 29, 30)
See also: Descensus, intermediate state, divine presence model.
Psyche (Greek: ψυχή)
The Greek word for “soul,” “life,” or “self.” The Greek equivalent of the Hebrew nephesh, but in the New Testament, psyche takes on a clearer meaning as the immaterial dimension of the person that can exist apart from the body. The most important text is Matthew 10:28: “Fear him who can destroy both psyche and body in Gehenna.” This verse establishes two things critical for this book: (1) the psyche is something distinct from the body, and (2) God can destroy it—the soul is not inherently immortal. The psyche survives death (Rev. 6:9–11; Luke 23:43) but is not indestructible. Immortality is a gift, not a birthright. (Chapters 12, 27)
See also: nephesh, pneuma, substance dualism, conditional immortality.
Ruach (Hebrew: רוּחַ)
A Hebrew word meaning “spirit,” “breath,” or “wind.” In the Old Testament, ruach can refer to the Spirit of God, the human spirit, or simply wind/breath. When used of the human spirit, it points to the immaterial, God-given dimension of the person. In Ecclesiastes 12:7, “the ruach returns to God who gave it,” which suggests a conscious, personal reality that continues after bodily death. While the Old Testament anthropology is less explicit about the soul’s separability than the New Testament, ruach contributes to the developing picture of the human person as more than merely physical. (Chapters 12, 27)
See also: nephesh, pneuma, psyche.
Second Death
A term used exclusively in Revelation (2:11; 20:6, 14; 21:8) to describe the final fate of the wicked. The “second death” is explicitly identified with the lake of fire (Rev. 20:14; 21:8). The language is critical: it is called a death, not a “second life of torment.” Death means the end of life, the cessation of existence. The first death is physical death; the second death is the final, irrevocable destruction of the whole person—body and soul—in the consuming fire of God’s presence. This supports CI over ECT: the second death is real and final. It is not a metaphor for eternal conscious suffering but an image of total destruction. On the divine presence model, the second death is what happens when a soul that has hardened irrevocably against God encounters the full blaze of His unveiled love—the fire consumes what cannot endure it. (Chapters 12, 26, 29)
See also: Lake of Fire, conditional immortality, Gehenna.
Self-Deception
A concept developed extensively by R. Zachary Manis in relation to the divine presence model. Self-deception is the process by which sin distorts the soul’s perception of reality, making good appear evil and evil appear good. The self-deceived person does not see clearly. They do not choose hell with open eyes but under the influence of a progressively darkened heart. Manis argues that self-deception is what makes eternal rejection of God possible: the person’s character hardens to the point where they can no longer see the love of God for what it is. Even when God’s presence is fully unveiled at the final judgment, the self-deceived experience that presence as torment rather than invitation. Self-deception distinguishes the divine presence model from the choice model: on the choice model, the damned choose hell freely and with understanding; on the divine presence model, they choose it under conditions of profound spiritual blindness. (Chapters 16, 18, 31)
See also: divine presence model, choice model.
Sheol (Hebrew: שְׁאוֹל)
The Hebrew word for the abode of the dead, roughly equivalent to the Greek Hades. In the Old Testament, Sheol is the shadowy underworld where all the dead go—both righteous and unrighteous. It is not hell in the modern sense. It is not a place of punishment. It is simply the realm of the dead, a place of stillness and waiting. The Old Testament picture of Sheol is dim and undeveloped compared to the New Testament’s fuller picture of the afterlife. What matters for this book is that Sheol/Hades is the intermediate state, not the final state. The unsaved do not go to the lake of fire when they die. They go to Hades. The lake of fire comes only after the final judgment (Rev. 20:11–15). Even in Sheol, God is present: “If I make my bed in Sheol, you are there” (Ps. 139:8). (Chapters 21, 27)
See also: Hades, Gehenna, intermediate state.
Soul Sleep
The view that the soul is unconscious between death and the final resurrection—the person “sleeps” and is unaware of the passage of time until God raises them. Soul sleep is held by some physicalists and by some conditionalists (Seventh-day Adventists, for example). This book rejects soul sleep on the basis of the biblical evidence for conscious existence between death and resurrection: Jesus’s promise to the thief on the cross (Luke 23:43), Paul’s desire to “depart and be with Christ” (Phil. 1:23), the souls crying out under the altar (Rev. 6:9–11), and the story of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19–31). The divine presence model requires a conscious intermediate state because the postmortem encounter with God’s presence must involve a real, aware person who can respond. (Chapters 27, 28)
See also: intermediate state, physicalism, substance dualism.
Substance Dualism
The philosophical and theological view that a human being is composed of two fundamental kinds of substance: a material body and an immaterial soul (or spirit). The soul is not merely a function of the brain or a way of talking about the body’s activity. It is a real, distinct entity that can exist apart from the body by God’s sustaining power. Substance dualism is supported by biblical texts that describe conscious existence apart from the body (Luke 23:43; Phil. 1:23; 2 Cor. 5:8; Rev. 6:9–11; Matt. 10:28) and by the philosophical arguments of scholars like J. P. Moreland (The Soul) and John W. Cooper (Body, Soul, and Life Everlasting). This book affirms substance dualism as essential to the divine presence model: if the soul is real and survives death, then persons continue to exist consciously in the intermediate state, where they may encounter God’s presence and respond to it. Substance dualism also grounds conditional immortality: the soul is real but not inherently immortal—God can destroy it (Matt. 10:28). (Chapters 12, 27)
See also: physicalism, soul sleep, intermediate state, psyche, nephesh.
Tartarus (Greek: τάρταρος)
A Greek term appearing only once in the New Testament, in 2 Peter 2:4: God “cast the angels who sinned into Tartarus.” In Greek mythology, Tartarus was the deepest part of the underworld, a place of confinement for the Titans. Peter borrows the term to describe the place where fallen angels are held in chains of darkness awaiting judgment. Tartarus is not the same as Hades (the general realm of the dead), Gehenna (the final state for humans), or the lake of fire (the final judgment destination in Revelation). It is a holding place specifically for rebellious spiritual beings. Its single use in Scripture serves as a reminder that the biblical vocabulary of the afterlife is richer and more varied than the simple heaven-or-hell framework of popular Christianity. (Chapter 21)
See also: Hades, Gehenna, Sheol, Lake of Fire.
Theosis (Greek: θέωσις)
A Greek term meaning “deification” or “divinization”—the process by which human beings are transformed by participation in the divine nature (2 Pet. 1:4). Theosis is a central concept in Eastern Orthodox theology, often summarized by Athanasius’s famous statement: “God became man so that man might become god.” This does not mean that humans become God in essence but that they are progressively conformed to the likeness of God, sharing in His love, life, and glory. On the divine presence model, theosis is the goal of salvation—the righteous are drawn ever deeper into the love and life of God, becoming more and more like Him. The fire of God’s love that purifies the willing is the fire of theosis: it burns away everything that is not of God. For those who resist, the same fire that could have transformed them instead torments them, because they will not yield to the transforming love. (Chapters 15, 29, 32)
See also: divine presence model, apokatastasis.
Timoria (Greek: τιμωρία)
A Greek word meaning “retributive punishment” or “vengeance.” In classical Greek usage, timoria refers to punishment aimed at satisfying the honor or anger of the one offended—punishment for its own sake, not for the benefit of the one punished. It is the opposite of kolasis, which is corrective punishment. The critical observation for the doctrine of hell is that Jesus, when describing the punishment of the age to come, chose kolasis (Matt. 25:46), not timoria. This word choice suggests that the judgment of God is aimed at correction and restoration, not at retribution and vengeance. ECT effectively turns kolasis into timoria—endless punishment with no possibility of correction or restoration. The divine presence model preserves the corrective character of kolasis: on CI, the fire purifies those who will yield and consumes those who will not; on UR, the fire eventually purifies all. (Chapters 10, 23)
See also: kolasis, aionios.
Tsedaka (Hebrew: צְדָקָה, also tsedaqah)
A Hebrew word typically translated “righteousness” or “justice.” In the Western juridical tradition, “justice” means giving people what they deserve—punishment for the guilty, reward for the righteous. But in the Hebrew Bible, tsedaka means something profoundly different. It is God’s saving action—His act of setting things right, rescuing the oppressed, restoring what is broken, and keeping His covenant promises. God’s justice is not a counterweight to His love. God’s justice IS His love in action. When Isaiah says “a righteous God and a Savior” (Isa. 45:21), the two terms are synonymous: God saves BECAUSE He is righteous, not in spite of it. The Western image of God holding a balance scale, weighing offenses against punishments, is foreign to the Hebrew mind. Tsedaka, together with hesed (steadfast love) and emeth (faithfulness), defines a God whose justice is always aimed at salvation, never at vengeance. This is the theological foundation of the divine presence model: God’s judgment IS His saving love fully unveiled. (Chapter 6)
See also: hesed, emeth.
Universal Reconciliation (UR)
The view that God will eventually reconcile all people—and indeed all things—to Himself. On this view, hell is real but temporary and purgatorial. The fire of God’s love will eventually soften even the hardest heart, and every creature will ultimately be restored to right relationship with God. Key biblical texts include Colossians 1:19–20 (God reconciling “all things” to Himself), 1 Corinthians 15:22 (“in Christ shall all be made alive”), 1 Timothy 2:4 (God desires “all people to be saved”), and Philippians 2:10–11 (every knee will bow). Key advocates include Gregory of Nyssa, Thomas Talbott, David Bentley Hart, and Robin Parry. The divine presence model is fully compatible with UR: if God’s love is truly inescapable and infinite, can any finite resistance hold out forever? The author takes UR seriously as a genuine theological hope but leans toward CI, primarily because the biblical language of finality (the “second death,” the destruction of body and soul) seems to rule out post-judgment reversal, and because genuine freedom seems to require the possibility of final refusal. (Chapters 3, 13, 30, 31)
See also: apokatastasis, universalism, conditional immortality.
Universalism
In the broad sense, the belief that all human beings will ultimately be saved. “Universalism” is sometimes used loosely to include forms that deny the reality of hell altogether (liberal universalism) as well as forms that affirm hell as real but temporary (conservative or evangelical universalism). In this book, “universalism” refers to the latter—what is more precisely called “universal reconciliation” or “evangelical universalism.” This is the view that hell is real, judgment is real, and the fire of God’s love is real—but that the fire is ultimately purgatorial, and every soul will eventually yield. The book distinguishes this from pluralistic universalism (the view that all religions lead to God) and from “soft” universalism (the view that hell is simply a myth). The universalism engaged in this book takes sin, judgment, and the fire of God seriously. It simply believes that love wins in the end. (Chapters 3, 13, 30)
See also: universal reconciliation, apokatastasis.
Accommodated Language
A concept from the Church Fathers, especially John Damascene, holding that Scripture often speaks of God in human terms that accommodate our limited understanding. When the Bible says God is “angry” or “wrathful,” it is not describing an emotional state in God (who is impassible and unchanging) but describing how sinful humans experience the encounter with perfect holiness and love. Just as a person with an eye disease might say “the sun is painful,” when in fact the sun has not changed—the problem is in the eye—so the wicked say “God is wrathful,” when in fact God has not changed. The wrath is in the experience, not in God. (Chapters 7, 15, 19)
Consuming Fire
The central image of this book, drawn from Hebrews 12:29: “Our God is a consuming fire.” On the divine presence model, this fire is not wrath in the pagan sense but love. The very fire that purifies gold also consumes wood. The difference is not in the fire but in what the fire touches. God’s love is the same toward all—but how we receive that love makes all the difference between heaven and hell. The consuming fire is the inescapable presence of God Himself. (Chapters 1, 8, 14, 22, 32)
Juridical Model
The Western theological framework, rooted in Augustine and Anselm, that pictures God primarily as a judge who has been offended by human sin and who demands satisfaction (punishment) to restore His honor. On this model, justice is a balance scale: sin creates a debt, and the debt must be paid—either by the sinner (in hell) or by Christ (on the cross). Kalomiros argues that this juridical framework is a pagan import that distorted the character of God in Western Christianity and gave rise to ECT. The Eastern tradition preserved a different understanding: God is not an offended judge but a loving Father whose “justice” is His saving love. The divine presence model rejects the juridical framework while affirming the reality of judgment. (Chapters 5, 6, 10)
Three Unveilings
A framework developed by R. Zachary Manis in Thinking Through the Problem of Hell for understanding how God’s presence is experienced at different stages of existence. The first unveiling is earthly life, where God’s presence is largely hidden (divine hiddenness) to preserve genuine freedom of response. The second unveiling is the intermediate state after death, where God’s presence is more fully experienced but not yet complete. The third unveiling is the final judgment, where God’s presence is fully and inescapably revealed—the “judgment of transparency,” where every human heart stands naked before the penetrating light of God’s truth and love. On the divine presence model, this third unveiling is the moment when paradise and hell become final: the righteous experience the full joy of God’s love, and the wicked experience the full torment of encountering love with a heart hardened against it. (Chapters 16, 27, 28, 29)