The Soul of Theological Anthropology: A Cartesian Defense of Substance Dualism

Introduction: The Vital Importance of Understanding Human Nature

In our modern age, few theological questions carry more practical and spiritual significance than understanding what it means to be human. Are we merely complex biological machines, sophisticated arrangements of atoms and molecules? Or do we possess an immaterial soul that transcends the physical realm? This question isn’t merely academic—it touches the very core of Christian faith, affecting our understanding of salvation, the afterlife, personal responsibility, and our relationship with God.

The debate between physicalism (the view that humans are purely physical beings) and substance dualism (the view that humans possess both a physical body and an immaterial soul) has raged for centuries. Today, many theologians and philosophers have abandoned the traditional Christian view of the soul, influenced by neuroscience and contemporary philosophy. However, as Joshua R. Farris demonstrates in his groundbreaking work The Soul of Theological Anthropology: A Cartesian Exploration, there are compelling theological, biblical, and philosophical reasons to maintain the traditional view that humans possess an immaterial soul distinct from the body.

This comprehensive report will explore the rich theological tradition of substance dualism, particularly from a Cartesian perspective, drawing extensively from Farris’s work and the broader Christian theological tradition. We will examine why believing in an immaterial soul is not only biblically faithful but also philosophically coherent and theologically necessary for maintaining core Christian doctrines.

Part I: The Cartesian Framework – Understanding Person-Body Substance Dualism

Chapter 1: A Cartesian Exploration in Natural Theology and Prolegomena

Farris begins his exploration by establishing the theological foundations for Cartesian dualism. As he notes in the Introduction, “Despite frequent rejection of Descartes’ ideas and Cartesianism generally, there have been some contemporaries working in what might be called the Cartesian tradition of philosophical anthropology.” This tradition, far from being outdated, provides crucial resources for understanding human nature in light of Christian revelation.

The Cartesian approach to understanding human persons begins with a fundamental insight about consciousness and self-awareness. When I think, when I experience, when I am aware—there is an irreducible “I” that cannot be reduced to mere physical processes. This insight, famously captured in Descartes’ “cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), points to something profound about human nature.

The Unity of Consciousness Argument

One of the most compelling arguments for substance dualism comes from the unity of consciousness. When you read these words, multiple things are happening simultaneously: your eyes are tracking across the page, your brain is processing visual information, neural networks are firing in complex patterns. Yet you experience all of this as a single, unified conscious experience. There is one “you” reading, not millions of neurons each having their own separate experiences.

As explored in The Substance of Consciousness, this unity presents a serious problem for physicalism. The brain consists of billions of neurons, each operating somewhat independently. If consciousness were purely physical, we would expect either no consciousness at all (since individual neurons aren’t conscious) or billions of separate consciousnesses (one for each neuron or neural cluster). Instead, we have exactly one unified stream of consciousness—precisely what we would expect if there were an immaterial soul unifying our mental life.

Chapter 2: A Cartesian Exploration of Scripture and Personal Ontology

Moving from philosophical foundations to biblical revelation, Farris demonstrates in Chapter 2 that “mind-body dualism of the Cartesian variety provides a ground for the Scriptural narrative of humans as images of God.” This connection between dualism and the imago Dei (image of God) is crucial for understanding biblical anthropology.

The biblical narrative presents humans as unique creatures who bridge the physical and spiritual realms. We are, in the words of Scripture, both “dust of the ground” and bearers of the “breath of life” from God (Genesis 2:7). This dual nature is not merely metaphorical but points to our ontological reality as embodied souls.

Part II: Biblical Foundations for the Immaterial Soul

The Scriptures provide abundant evidence for the existence of an immaterial soul distinct from the physical body. While modern scholars sometimes attempt to read the Bible through physicalist lenses, careful exegesis reveals that the traditional understanding of humans as possessing immaterial souls is deeply rooted in biblical teaching.

Old Testament Foundations

The Hebrew Scriptures lay the groundwork for understanding human beings as more than merely physical creatures. From the very beginning, Genesis presents humans as unique among God’s creatures, formed from both earthly matter and divine breath.

Genesis 2:7 – The Divine Breath

One of the most significant texts for understanding biblical anthropology is Genesis 2:7: “Then the LORD God formed man of dust from the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being.” This verse presents a clear distinction between the physical formation from dust and the spiritual animation through God’s breath. The Hebrew word neshamah (breath) used here is often associated with the spiritual aspect of human nature that distinguishes us from animals.

Ecclesiastes 12:7 – The Separation at Death

Perhaps no Old Testament verse more clearly teaches the distinction between body and soul than Ecclesiastes 12:7: “Then the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it.” This verse explicitly describes death as a separation: the body returns to the earth while the spirit (Hebrew: ruach) returns to God. This is not merely poetic language but a theological statement about the dual nature of human beings.

New Testament Evidence: The Teaching of Jesus and the Apostles

The New Testament provides even clearer evidence for the existence of the immaterial soul. Jesus himself taught about the soul’s distinction from the body, and the apostles consistently wrote about human nature in dualistic terms.

Matthew 10:28 – Jesus’ Clear Teaching

Perhaps the clearest statement from Jesus about the soul comes in Matthew 10:28: “Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell.” This statement makes no sense if humans are purely physical beings. Jesus explicitly distinguishes between the body, which can be killed by human agents, and the soul, which cannot. This teaching assumes that the soul can exist apart from the body—a clear affirmation of substance dualism.

The Intermediate State in Paul’s Theology

The Apostle Paul provides extensive teaching about the nature of human persons and what happens at death. His writings in 2 Corinthians are particularly significant for understanding the intermediate state—the period between death and resurrection.

In 2 Corinthians 5:1-10, Paul uses the metaphor of a tent (temporary dwelling) for the body and expresses his desire to be “absent from the body and present with the Lord” (v. 8). As Farris notes in Chapter 7, “The context of the passage discusses soteriology (i.e. the doctrine of salvation), and presupposes that human persons metaphysically transcend the physical and epistemically transcend the physical world.”

This passage has been subject to various interpretations, but the most natural reading supports the intermediate state view. Paul distinguishes between:

• Being “at home in the body” and “absent from the Lord”
• Being “absent from the body” and “at home with the Lord”
• The future state of being “clothed” with the resurrection body

The language of being “naked” or “unclothed” (2 Corinthians 5:3-4) refers to the disembodied state between death and resurrection. While Paul sees this as less than ideal (hence his preference to be “further clothed” with the resurrection body), he clearly affirms that conscious personal existence continues in this intermediate state.

Part III: Theological Arguments for Substance Dualism

The Imago Dei and Human Uniqueness

One of the strongest theological arguments for substance dualism comes from the doctrine of the imago Dei—the belief that humans are made in God’s image. As Farris argues in Chapter 2, the substantial view of the imago Dei provides the most coherent account of human uniqueness and dignity.

God is spirit (John 4:24), and he is not physical. If humans are made in God’s image, it makes sense that we too would have a spiritual dimension that transcends the merely physical. This spiritual aspect—the soul—is what enables us to:

• Have a relationship with God
• Exercise moral agency and responsibility
• Engage in abstract thought and reasoning
• Experience self-consciousness and reflection
• Appreciate beauty, truth, and goodness
• Long for transcendence and eternity

These capacities cannot be adequately explained by purely physical processes. They point to something more—an immaterial soul that bears the image of our immaterial Creator.

The Problem of Personal Identity

Another compelling argument for substance dualism concerns personal identity over time. Throughout your life, your body undergoes constant change. Scientists estimate that most of the atoms in your body are replaced every seven to ten years. Your brain cells die and are replaced (though neurons are more stable than other cells). Your memories change, your personality develops, your beliefs and desires evolve.

Yet through all these changes, you remain you. The person reading this sentence is the same person who learned to read years ago, despite the massive physical and psychological changes that have occurred. What accounts for this continuity of identity?

Physicalism struggles to answer this question. If you are just your body, then you’re not the same person you were seven years ago—you’re mostly composed of different atoms. If you are your psychological states, then you’re not the same person you were as a child, since your beliefs, desires, and memories have changed dramatically.

Substance dualism provides a clear answer: you remain the same person because you have the same soul. The soul is the locus of personal identity that persists through physical and psychological changes. As explored in The Substance of Consciousness, “The immaterial self is a unique kind of substance in that it has the power of self-awareness and self-reference.” This self-awareness and continuity of identity are grounded in the simple, indivisible soul.

The Origin of the Soul: Creationism vs. Traducianism

Within the framework of substance dualism, Christian theologians have debated how souls come into existence. Farris explores this question extensively in Part II of his work, examining two main views:

Creationism

Creationism (not to be confused with creation science) is the view that God directly creates each individual soul at conception or at some point during fetal development. As Farris explains in Chapter 3, “Creationism is the view that God creates the individual soul directly and immediately. God is directly the cause in the sense that he utilizes no other cause to bring about the soul.”

This view has been held by many prominent theologians, including Thomas Aquinas and most Roman Catholic theologians. It emphasizes God’s direct involvement in the creation of each human person and preserves the uniqueness and dignity of each individual soul.

Traducianism

Traducianism holds that souls are transmitted from parents to children through natural generation, just as bodies are. Farris describes it as “the view that God creates at least one, if not two, souls immediately and each successive soul, secondarily or mediately, through the generative process from one generation to another.”

This view, favored by many Protestant theologians including Luther, helps explain the transmission of original sin and the unity of the human race. It sees souls as propagated naturally while still being ultimately created by God.

Emergent Creationism: A Novel Synthesis

Farris proposes a novel view he calls “emergent creationism” which attempts to combine insights from both positions. In Chapter 4, he develops this view which sees souls as emerging from the physical substrate through divinely guided processes while still being directly created by God. This view attempts to do justice to both the scientific evidence for the gradual development of human capacities and the theological requirement for divine involvement in soul creation.

Part IV: Philosophical Arguments Supporting Dualism

The Argument from Consciousness

One of the most powerful philosophical arguments for substance dualism comes from the nature of consciousness itself. Consciousness—the subjective, first-person experience of what it’s like to be you—presents an insurmountable problem for physicalism.

Consider the experience of seeing red. When you look at a ripe strawberry, there’s something it’s like to experience that particular shade of red. This qualitative, subjective experience (what philosophers call “qualia”) cannot be captured by any amount of physical description. You could know everything about the wavelengths of light, the structure of the eye, the neural pathways in the brain—and still not know what it’s like to see red unless you’ve experienced it yourself.

This is known as the “hard problem of consciousness,” and despite decades of effort, physicalists have made no progress in solving it. The problem isn’t just that we don’t yet understand how the brain produces consciousness; it’s that we can’t even conceive of how any amount of physical processing could produce subjective experience.

Substance dualism dissolves this problem. If consciousness is a property of an immaterial soul rather than emerging from physical processes, then there’s no mystery about why physical descriptions can’t capture subjective experience. They’re simply different kinds of things.

The Unity of Consciousness Argument (Expanded)

Let’s delve deeper into the unity of consciousness argument, which provides perhaps the strongest philosophical case for the soul. As explored in detail in The Substance of Consciousness, consciousness exhibits a remarkable unity that cannot be explained by physical processes alone.

Consider what’s happening in your conscious experience right now:

• You’re seeing these words on the page or screen
• You’re understanding their meaning
• You may be aware of sounds in your environment
• You’re feeling the temperature of the room
• You might be experiencing emotions or memories triggered by this content
• You’re maintaining a sense of yourself as the subject of all these experiences

All of these diverse experiences are unified in a single consciousness—yours. This unity cannot be explained if consciousness emerges from the brain, because the brain is composed of billions of separate neurons, each processing information independently. There’s no physical location where all this information comes together into a unified experience.

This is sometimes called the “binding problem” in neuroscience, and it remains completely unsolved. How does the brain bind together information processed in different regions into a single, unified conscious experience? Physicalism has no answer.

Substance dualism provides a straightforward solution: consciousness is unified because it belongs to a simple, indivisible soul. The soul has no parts to be unified—it is inherently one. This explains why your conscious experience is unified: it all belongs to one simple subject, your soul.

The Argument from Free Will and Moral Responsibility

Another powerful argument for substance dualism comes from our experience of free will and moral responsibility. When you make a decision, it feels like you—not your brain, not your neurons, but you—are the author of that choice. This experience of agent causation, where you as an agent cause things to happen without being fully determined by prior physical causes, is difficult to explain on physicalism.

If physicalism is true, then your decisions are simply the result of neural processes in your brain, which are themselves the result of prior physical causes stretching back to the Big Bang. In this view, you’re not really making choices; you’re just watching your brain go through the motions determined by the laws of physics.

But this contradicts both our direct experience and the requirements of moral responsibility. If you’re not really the author of your actions, how can you be held morally responsible for them? How can there be genuine praise or blame, virtue or vice?

Substance dualism preserves genuine free will and moral responsibility. The soul, as an immaterial substance, is not bound by the deterministic laws that govern physical matter. It can be a genuine source of free action, making real choices that are not simply the inevitable result of prior physical causes.

This is crucial for Christian theology, which affirms human moral responsibility before God. We are accountable for our actions because we have souls capable of free choice. Without an immaterial soul, moral responsibility becomes an illusion.

Part V: The Soul and Christian Eschatology

The Intermediate State: Between Death and Resurrection

One of the most significant theological implications of substance dualism concerns what happens when we die. The Christian tradition has consistently taught that death involves the separation of soul and body, with the soul continuing to exist in an “intermediate state” until the final resurrection.

Farris extensively explores this doctrine in Part IV of his work, particularly in Chapters 7 and 8. As he notes, “Up to this stage, I have constructively explored the merits of the variants of Cartesianism or deviant variations of Cartesianism within personal ontology and the models of origins in the context of Christian dogmatics (e.g. creation, corruption, and salvation).”

The intermediate state is not merely a theological speculation but is clearly taught in Scripture. Consider:

• Jesus’ promise to the thief on the cross: “Today you will be with me in Paradise” (Luke 23:43)
• Paul’s desire to “depart and be with Christ” (Philippians 1:23)
• The souls under the altar in Revelation 6:9-10, conscious and crying out to God
• The “spirits of the righteous made perfect” in Hebrews 12:23

These passages make no sense if humans cease to exist at death and are recreated at the resurrection. They clearly teach that personal, conscious existence continues between death and resurrection.

The Resurrection: Reunion of Soul and Body

While substance dualism affirms that the soul can exist without the body, it doesn’t denigrate the body or see it as unimportant. The Christian hope is not merely the immortality of the soul but the resurrection of the body. At Christ’s return, soul and body will be reunited in a glorified, immortal state.

This distinguishes Christian dualism from Platonic dualism, which saw the body as a prison from which the soul needs to escape. In Christian theology, the body is good, created by God, and essential to full human existence. The intermediate state is temporary and incomplete; full human flourishing requires both soul and body.

As Farris emphasizes, the resurrection demonstrates that “humans will not be floating as spirits in heaven, as some may suggest. Instead, we will be embodied beings on the new earth. The nature of human redemption is complete in that it incorporates both body and soul, not simply the soul or the body.”

The Beatific Vision

The ultimate goal of human existence, according to Christian theology, is the beatific vision—seeing God face to face and enjoying perfect communion with him forever. This vision requires both body and soul, but it’s the soul that makes it possible.

As Richard Swinburne notes in the quotation that opens Chapter 7 of Farris’s work, “God has something marvellous to give us – the beatific vision of himself in Heaven.” This vision is not merely intellectual knowledge about God but direct, experiential knowledge of God himself. It’s the fulfillment of Jesus’ words: “This is eternal life, that they know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent” (John 17:3).

The soul, as the spiritual aspect of human nature, is what enables this direct communion with God, who is spirit. While we will have resurrection bodies, it’s through our souls that we will most directly experience and know God.

Part VI: Responding to Objections

The Interaction Problem

One of the most common objections to substance dualism is the interaction problem: how can an immaterial soul interact with a physical body? This objection, first raised against Descartes, continues to be pressed today.

However, this objection is not as strong as it might initially appear. Consider:

1. We don’t fully understand physical causation either. How does one billiard ball cause another to move? We can describe what happens, but the nature of causation itself remains mysterious. If we don’t fully understand physical-physical causation, why should we expect to fully understand soul-body causation?

2. We have direct experience of mental causation. When you decide to raise your arm, and your arm rises, you experience mental causation directly. To deny this because we don’t understand the mechanism is to let theory override experience.

3. God provides the ultimate ground for soul-body interaction. As Farris notes, drawing from John Foster, “the interactive relation is directly rooted in Divine causation as a personal explanation where God establishes an appropriate functional attachment between the soul and the body.”

4. Quantum mechanics has revealed that physical reality is far stranger than we imagined. The quantum world involves non-local correlations, observer effects, and other phenomena that would have seemed impossible under classical physics. This should make us more humble about declaring what kinds of causation are possible.

The Neuroscience Objection

Another common objection comes from neuroscience: doesn’t brain science show that all mental functions depend on the brain? If damaging the brain affects consciousness, memory, and personality, doesn’t this prove that the mind is simply a function of the brain?

This objection confuses correlation with identity. Substance dualists don’t deny that the soul and brain are intimately connected in this life. The soul works through the brain, using it as an instrument. Damage to the instrument affects the soul’s ability to express itself through the body, but this doesn’t mean the soul is identical to the brain.

Consider an analogy: a musician depends on her instrument to produce music. If the piano is damaged, the music will be affected. But this doesn’t mean the musician is the piano. Similarly, the soul depends on the brain for embodied consciousness, but this doesn’t mean the soul is the brain.

Moreover, there are numerous documented cases that challenge the idea that consciousness is produced by the brain:

• Near-death experiences (NDEs): People report vivid conscious experiences when their brains show no activity
• Terminal lucidity: Some patients with severe dementia experience a return of mental clarity shortly before death
• Savant syndrome: Some individuals display extraordinary abilities that seem to transcend normal brain function
• Veridical perceptions during cardiac arrest: Some patients accurately report events that occurred while they were clinically dead

These phenomena are difficult to explain if consciousness is simply produced by the brain, but they make sense if consciousness belongs to a soul that can function independently of the brain.

The Evolution Objection

Some argue that evolution makes substance dualism unnecessary or implausible. If humans evolved from earlier primates, when did souls enter the picture? And why would evolution produce creatures with immaterial souls?

However, evolution and substance dualism are not incompatible. As Farris explores in his discussion of emergent creationism, God could have guided evolution to produce beings capable of bearing souls. At some point in human evolution—perhaps with the first true humans—God began creating or infusing souls.

This view, sometimes called “theistic evolution” or “evolutionary creation,” sees evolution as God’s method of creating bodies suitable for souls. The soul doesn’t evolve; it’s specially created by God. But the body evolved to the point where it could house a rational soul.

This explains the discontinuity between humans and other animals. While we share much with animals physically and behaviorally, we possess capacities—abstract reasoning, moral awareness, aesthetic appreciation, religious consciousness—that transcend what evolution alone would produce. These are capacities of the soul.

Part VII: Practical Implications of Substance Dualism

Human Dignity and the Sanctity of Life

Substance dualism has profound implications for how we view human dignity and the value of human life. If humans possess immaterial souls created by God, then every human being has inherent dignity and worth that transcends their physical or mental capacities.

This has important implications for bioethics:

• Abortion: If the soul is present from conception, then human life begins at conception, making abortion the taking of a human life.
• Euthanasia: The soul’s existence means that even those with severe disabilities or terminal illnesses retain their full human dignity.
• Embryonic research: If embryos have souls, then destructive embryo research involves destroying human persons.
• End-of-life care: Understanding that the soul may depart before all biological functions cease affects how we approach end-of-life decisions.

Without the soul, human dignity becomes contingent on capacities like rationality, self-awareness, or social relationships. This leads to the dangerous conclusion that some humans—infants, the cognitively disabled, those with advanced dementia—are less valuable than others. Substance dualism grounds human dignity in the possession of a soul, making all humans equally valuable regardless of their current capacities.

Spiritual Formation and Sanctification

Understanding humans as embodied souls has significant implications for spiritual formation and sanctification. If we are souls, then spiritual growth involves more than just changing behavior or thinking patterns—it involves the transformation of the soul itself.

This explains why spiritual disciplines like prayer, meditation, fasting, and worship are so important. These practices don’t just affect our bodies or minds; they shape our souls. They open us to God’s transforming grace, allowing the Holy Spirit to sanctify us from the inside out.

Moreover, understanding the soul helps explain the persistence of sin and the difficulty of change. Sin affects not just our bodies (through disordered desires) or our minds (through false beliefs) but our very souls. This is why sanctification is a lifelong process requiring divine grace—we need God to heal and transform our souls.

Pastoral Care and Counseling

Recognizing humans as embodied souls profoundly impacts pastoral care and counseling. While psychological and medical interventions can help with mental and emotional problems, true healing often requires addressing the soul.

This doesn’t mean rejecting psychology or psychiatry—these disciplines offer valuable insights and treatments. But it does mean recognizing that humans have spiritual needs that transcend the psychological. Issues like guilt, meaninglessness, spiritual emptiness, and alienation from God are fundamentally soul issues that require spiritual solutions.

This is why prayer, confession, forgiveness, and spiritual direction remain essential elements of pastoral care. They address the deepest needs of the soul in ways that purely psychological approaches cannot.

Worship and the Soul

Understanding humans as souls has profound implications for worship. True worship involves more than emotional experiences or intellectual assent to doctrines—it’s the soul’s response to God’s presence and revelation.

This explains why worship can be so transformative. In genuine worship, our souls encounter the living God. We’re not just singing songs or listening to sermons; we’re opening our souls to divine reality. This is why people can be profoundly changed through worship in ways that go beyond what psychology can explain.

It also explains why different people respond to different forms of worship. Some souls are drawn to God through liturgy and sacrament, others through contemporary music and spontaneous prayer, still others through silence and contemplation. These different worship styles speak to souls in different ways, all potentially leading to genuine encounter with God.

Part VIII: The Historical Development of Christian Dualism

The Patristic Period: Early Church Fathers

The early church fathers consistently affirmed the existence of the soul as distinct from the body. While they drew on Greek philosophy, particularly Platonism, they transformed these ideas in light of Christian revelation.

Augustine of Hippo (354-430)

Augustine, perhaps the most influential theologian in Western Christianity, strongly affirmed substance dualism. He argued that the soul is a spiritual substance created by God, distinct from but united with the body. In his work “On the Immortality of the Soul,” Augustine provided philosophical arguments for the soul’s existence and immortality.

Augustine saw the soul as the seat of the image of God in humans, enabling reason, will, and memory—the three faculties that mirror the Trinity. He believed the soul was created directly by God (creationism) rather than transmitted from parents (traducianism), though he remained somewhat uncertain on this point.

Gregory of Nyssa (335-395)

Gregory of Nyssa, one of the Cappadocian Fathers, developed a sophisticated understanding of the soul that influenced Eastern Christianity. In his work “On the Soul and the Resurrection,” he argued that the soul is immaterial and immortal, created in God’s image.

Gregory emphasized that while the soul is distinct from the body, humans are meant to be unified beings. The resurrection will restore this unity, bringing soul and body together in a glorified state. He also developed the idea that the soul continues to grow and develop in the afterlife, progressing eternally toward God.

Medieval Scholasticism: Refining the Doctrine

The medieval period saw the most sophisticated philosophical development of Christian dualism, particularly in the work of Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Aquinas developed a unique form of dualism that attempted to preserve both the soul’s independence and its essential connection to the body. Drawing on Aristotle, he argued that the soul is the “form” of the body—what makes a body a living human body.

However, unlike Aristotle, Aquinas maintained that the rational soul (unique to humans) can exist independently of the body. This “subsistent form” survives death and maintains personal identity until reunited with the body at the resurrection.

Aquinas provided five proofs for the soul’s immortality based on its intellectual operations, which transcend matter. He argued that because the soul can know universal truths and engage in abstract reasoning, it must be immaterial and therefore incorruptible.

The Reformation: Protestant Contributions

The Protestant Reformers generally maintained traditional Christian dualism while emphasizing different aspects.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

Calvin strongly affirmed substance dualism, dedicating significant portions of his Institutes of the Christian Religion to defending the soul’s existence and immortality. He argued vigorously against those who taught “soul sleep”—the idea that souls are unconscious between death and resurrection.

Calvin emphasized that the soul is the primary locus of the image of God and the seat of true knowledge of God and self. He saw the soul’s immortality as essential to the Gospel, providing hope in the face of death and grounding the promise of eternal life.

Reformed Scholasticism

The Reformed scholastics of the 16th and 17th centuries developed sophisticated defenses of substance dualism. They produced detailed systematic theologies that integrated biblical exegesis, philosophical argument, and pastoral application.

These theologians developed careful distinctions about the soul’s faculties, its relationship to the body, and its state after death. They saw substance dualism as essential to maintaining orthodox doctrines about human nature, sin, salvation, and eschatology.

Modern Challenges and Responses

The modern period brought new challenges to substance dualism from both philosophy and science.

The Enlightenment Challenge

Enlightenment thinkers like David Hume challenged traditional arguments for the soul, arguing that we have no direct experience of a substantial self. Immanuel Kant, while not denying the soul’s existence, argued that it couldn’t be proven through theoretical reason.

Christian thinkers responded by developing new arguments and refining traditional ones. They emphasized that the soul’s existence is known through both revelation and reason, and that materialist alternatives face even greater philosophical problems.

The Scientific Challenge

The rise of neuroscience in the 20th century seemed to many to undermine dualism by showing the brain’s role in mental functions. However, Christian dualists have responded by:

• Distinguishing correlation from causation
• Pointing to phenomena that neuroscience cannot explain
• Developing sophisticated models of soul-body interaction
• Showing that science itself presupposes non-physical realities like laws, numbers, and logic

Part IX: Contemporary Developments and Future Directions

The Renaissance of Substance Dualism

Despite predictions of its demise, substance dualism is experiencing a remarkable renaissance in philosophy and theology. As Farris notes, “In the last few decades there has been a resurgence of interest in substance dualism – and there are different versions of such dualism, as there are different versions of physicalism.”

Several factors have contributed to this renaissance:

1. The Failure of Physicalism

Physicalist attempts to explain consciousness have consistently failed. The “hard problem of consciousness” remains unsolved, and many philosophers are recognizing that it may be unsolvable within a physicalist framework. This has led to renewed interest in dualist alternatives.

2. Developments in Philosophy of Mind

Contemporary philosophers have developed sophisticated new arguments for dualism:

• The knowledge argument (what it’s like to see color)
• The conceivability argument (philosophical zombies)
• The argument from personal identity
• The unity of consciousness argument

These arguments have shown that dualism remains philosophically viable and may even be philosophically superior to physicalism.

3. Neuroscience Anomalies

Phenomena like near-death experiences, terminal lucidity, and veridical perceptions during cardiac arrest have challenged the idea that consciousness is produced by the brain. While controversial, these phenomena are difficult to explain on physicalism but consistent with dualism.

4. Theological Renewal

Many theologians are recognizing that physicalism undermines essential Christian doctrines. This has led to renewed appreciation for the theological necessity of substance dualism.

Different Models of Substance Dualism

Contemporary substance dualism is not monolithic. Farris identifies several variants in his exploration:

Pure Substance Dualism (PSD)

This view, closest to classical Cartesianism, holds that the person is essentially the soul, which has or uses a body. The soul is a complete substance capable of existing and functioning without the body, though it naturally functions through a body in this life.

Compound Substance Dualism (CSD)

This view sees humans as compounds of two substances—body and soul—with neither alone constituting the person. The person is the composite of body and soul together, though the soul can exist separately in the intermediate state.

Emergent Dualism

Developed by philosophers like William Hasker, this view holds that the soul emerges from the body/brain when it reaches sufficient complexity. Once emerged, the soul is a distinct substance capable of surviving bodily death.

Farris’s own proposal of “emergent creationism” attempts to combine insights from these different models, seeing the soul as both emerging from physical processes and being specially created by God.

Future Research Directions

Farris concludes his work by identifying several areas needing further research:

1. Biblical Studies

More work is needed on the biblical teaching about human nature. While recent scholarship has often favored physicalist readings, careful exegesis supports substance dualism. Future research should:

• Examine the full range of biblical texts on human nature
• Consider the theological implications of different interpretations
• Integrate insights from biblical theology with systematic theology

2. Philosophy of Mind

Continued philosophical work is needed to:

• Develop more sophisticated models of soul-body interaction
• Respond to new objections from neuroscience and cognitive science
• Explore the implications of quantum mechanics for dualism
• Investigate the relationship between consciousness and information

3. Theological Development

Systematic theologians need to:

• Show how substance dualism relates to other doctrines
• Develop the implications for ethics and pastoral theology
• Engage with world religions on the nature of the soul
• Address contemporary challenges from technology and artificial intelligence

4. Science and Theology Dialogue

The conversation between theology and science needs to continue, with:

• Careful distinction between scientific data and philosophical interpretation
• Recognition of the limits of scientific methodology
• Appreciation for how theology and science can mutually inform each other
• Development of models that integrate scientific findings with theological truth

Part X: The Practical Spirituality of the Soul

Living as Embodied Souls

Understanding ourselves as embodied souls has profound implications for daily Christian living. It affects how we approach spiritual disciplines, understand spiritual warfare, pursue holiness, and prepare for eternity.

The Care of the Soul

If we have souls, then soul care becomes paramount. This involves more than just Bible study and prayer, though these are essential. It includes:

• Contemplation: Taking time to be still and know God, allowing our souls to rest in His presence
• Examination: Regularly examining our souls for sin, unhealthy attachments, and areas needing growth
• Confession: Bringing our sins before God and, when appropriate, trusted believers for healing and forgiveness
• Meditation: Dwelling on God’s Word and character, allowing truth to penetrate deeply into our souls
• Communion: Participating in the Lord’s Supper as a means of grace for our souls

Spiritual Warfare and the Soul

The Bible speaks of spiritual warfare—battles that occur in the spiritual realm affecting our souls. Understanding the soul’s reality helps us take this seriously. We face enemies that attack not just our bodies or minds but our very souls:

• Temptations that appeal to disordered desires in our souls
• Deceptions that would corrupt our souls with lies
• Accusations that would burden our souls with false guilt
• Discouragements that would weaken our souls’ resolve

Victory in spiritual warfare requires spiritual weapons: the Word of God, prayer, faith, and the power of the Holy Spirit. These weapons are effective because they operate at the level of the soul.

The Soul’s Journey Toward God

Christian spirituality has long understood the Christian life as the soul’s journey toward God. This journey involves several stages:

Awakening

The soul awakens to its need for God. This may happen dramatically in conversion or gradually through growing awareness. The soul recognizes its emptiness apart from God and its deep longing for transcendence.

Purification

The soul undergoes purification as God removes sin and its effects. This involves both definitive sanctification (being set apart for God) and progressive sanctification (growing in holiness). The soul learns to die to self and live to God.

Illumination

The soul receives increasing light from God, understanding spiritual truths more deeply. This isn’t just intellectual knowledge but experiential knowledge—the soul knowing God directly through relationship.

Union

The soul experiences deeper union with God through Christ. While full union awaits eternity, believers can experience genuine communion with God in this life. The soul finds its true home in God.

Preparing for Eternity

Understanding the soul’s immortality changes how we view death and prepare for eternity. Death is not the end but a transition—the soul’s departure from the body to enter God’s immediate presence.

This knowledge should inspire us to:

• Invest in eternal things: Since our souls are eternal, we should prioritize what lasts forever over temporary pleasures
• Cultivate virtue: The habits and character we develop shape our souls for eternity
• Deepen our relationship with God: This relationship will continue and deepen forever
• Store up heavenly treasure: What we do for God’s kingdom has eternal significance
• Live with hope: Death has lost its sting because our souls will live forever with God

Conclusion: The Enduring Truth of the Soul

As we conclude this extensive exploration of substance dualism from a Cartesian perspective, several crucial points emerge with crystal clarity. The traditional Christian understanding of humans as possessing immaterial souls is not a relic of pre-scientific thinking but a profound truth supported by Scripture, theology, philosophy, and human experience.

Joshua R. Farris’s groundbreaking work, The Soul of Theological Anthropology: A Cartesian Exploration, demonstrates that Cartesian substance dualism provides essential resources for understanding human nature in all its complexity. Far from denigrating the body or promoting an unhealthy spiritualism, Christian dualism affirms both the body and soul as good creations of God, destined for eternal union in the resurrection.

The evidence for the soul is overwhelming:

• Biblically, Scripture consistently teaches that humans possess souls that can exist apart from the body, conscious in the intermediate state, awaiting resurrection.
• Theologically, the soul is necessary for maintaining essential Christian doctrines including the image of God, personal identity, moral responsibility, and the afterlife.
• Philosophically, the unity of consciousness, the reality of free will, and the persistence of personal identity all point to an immaterial soul.
• Experientially, our direct awareness of ourselves as unified, conscious subjects confirms what Scripture and theology teach about the soul.
• Practically, understanding ourselves as souls profoundly impacts how we approach spiritual formation, pastoral care, ethics, and preparation for eternity.

The challenges to substance dualism from neuroscience and contemporary philosophy, while deserving serious consideration, ultimately fail to overturn the massive evidence for the soul. Correlation between brain states and mental states doesn’t prove identity. The interaction problem is no more problematic than physical causation itself. And the unity of consciousness remains an insurmountable problem for physicalism while finding a natural explanation in the simple, indivisible soul.

As we face an increasingly materialistic culture that reduces humans to biological machines, the church must confidently proclaim the reality of the soul. This isn’t merely an abstract doctrine but a truth with profound practical implications:

• Every human being, from conception to natural death, possesses infinite dignity as a soul created in God’s image
• Our deepest problems are spiritual, requiring spiritual solutions
• Death is not the end but a transition to continued conscious existence
• Our choices matter eternally because we are free, responsible agents
• The cultivation of virtue and relationship with God shapes our souls for eternity

The Cartesian tradition, properly understood and developed, provides a robust framework for understanding these truths. It preserves both the transcendence of the soul and the goodness of the body. It maintains human uniqueness while acknowledging our embodied existence. It grounds human dignity while explaining our fallen condition.

As Farris concludes in his work, substance dualism—particularly in its Cartesian form—”is still defensible” and “far from dead, despite contemporary reports to the contrary.” Indeed, we would go further: substance dualism is not merely defensible but essential for maintaining biblical Christianity and understanding the full truth about human nature.

The soul exists. You are not just a body; you are an embodied soul. This truth changes everything—how we view ourselves, how we treat others, how we prepare for eternity, and how we relate to God. In a world that increasingly denies spiritual reality, the church must stand firm on this fundamental truth: humans possess immaterial, immortal souls created by God for eternal fellowship with Him.

May this exploration inspire renewed confidence in the traditional Christian understanding of human nature. May it equip believers to defend the reality of the soul against materialist challenges. And may it deepen our appreciation for the profound mystery and dignity of human existence as embodied souls created in the image of God, redeemed by Christ, and destined for eternal glory.

The soul—your soul—is real. It is precious beyond measure. It is eternal. And it finds its ultimate fulfillment only in God, who created it for Himself. As Augustine famously wrote, “You have made us for yourself, O Lord, and our hearts are restless until they rest in you.” This restlessness, this longing for transcendence, this yearning for God—these are the stirrings of the soul, calling us home to our Creator.

In the end, the question is not whether we have souls—the evidence is overwhelming that we do. The question is: what will we do with this knowledge? Will we cultivate our souls through spiritual disciplines? Will we prepare them for eternity? Will we help others understand their true nature as souls created and loved by God?

The doctrine of the soul is not merely true; it is transformative. Understanding ourselves as embodied souls changes how we live, how we die, and how we hope. It grounds human dignity, enables genuine freedom, and opens the door to eternal life. This is the enduring truth of theological anthropology: we are souls, created by God, redeemed by Christ, and destined for glory.

Soli Deo Gloria
To God Alone Be Glory

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