Appendix B
The following bibliography collects the most important works for understanding the divine presence model of hell, the problem of hell in Christian theology, the major views of final punishment (eternal conscious torment, conditional immortality, and universal reconciliation), the intermediate state, and related topics. Entries are organized by category and formatted in Turabian style. Each entry includes a brief annotation explaining the work’s relevance to the themes of this book.
Baker, Sharon L. Razing Hell: Rethinking Everything You’ve Been Taught about God’s Wrath and Judgment. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2010. Baker offers the most accessible theological case for the divine presence model written for a popular audience. Her retelling of the judgment of “Otto”—an imagined wicked man who encounters God’s purifying fire—is one of the most memorable illustrations in the literature. Baker argues that God’s justice is restorative rather than retributive and that the fire of judgment is God’s love, not divine torture. She holds a hybrid position combining the divine presence model with conditional immortality.
Kalomiros, Alexandre. The River of Fire: A Reply to the Questions: Is God Really Good? Did God Create Hell? Seattle: St. Nectarios, 1980. Available at https://glory2godforallthings.com/the-river-of-fire-kalomiros/. This short but powerful Orthodox essay is arguably the single most influential popular presentation of the divine presence model. Kalomiros argues that the Western church distorted the character of God by importing pagan ideas of divine wrath, and that the Eastern Fathers always understood hell as the experience of God’s love by those who hate Him. His reading of the Orthodox icon of the Last Judgment—in which the river of fire flows from Christ’s throne—is unforgettable.
Manis, R. Zachary. Sinners in the Presence of a Loving God: An Essay on the Problem of Hell. New York: Oxford University Press, 2024. This is the most rigorous philosophical treatment of the divine presence model available. Manis develops the model as a “middle way” between traditionalism and the choice model, arguing that hell is the natural consequence of encountering perfect Love with a heart shaped by sin. He engages every major alternative at length and demonstrates that the divine presence model meets the criteria for an adequate solution better than its competitors. Indispensable for any serious student of the topic.
Manis, R. Zachary. Thinking Through the Problem of Hell: The Divine Presence Model. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. A more accessible and updated presentation of Manis’s divine presence model, written for a broader audience than his Oxford monograph. Manis walks through the standard options (traditionalism, annihilationism, universalism, and the choice model), explains why each falls short, and then develops the divine presence model with care and precision. His treatment of divine hiddenness and the Day of Judgment is especially valuable.
Anthony the Great, Saint. The Philokalia. Compiled by Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain and Makarios of Corinth. Translated by G. E. H. Palmer, Philip Sherrard, and Kallistos Ware. 5 vols. London: Faber and Faber, 1979–. Chapter 150 of Anthony’s section in the Philokalia contains the striking teaching that God is good and does not harm anyone, and that the suffering of the wicked in the afterlife comes from their own condition, not from divine punishment. A key patristic text for the divine presence model.
Basil the Great, Saint. That God Is Not the Cause of Evils. In Saint Basil: Letters and Selected Works, translated by Blomfield Jackson. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, vol. 8. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1994. Basil’s homily argues that evil does not originate in God but in creaturely free will. His teaching that fire has two properties—one of burning and another of illuminating—became a foundational text for the Orthodox understanding of the Last Judgment and the divine presence model.
Gregory of Nyssa, Saint. On the Soul and the Resurrection. Translated by Catharine P. Roth. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1993. Gregory presents a vision of the afterlife in which God draws all creation toward Himself. The pain of the soul encountering God’s presence is proportionate to the sin remaining in it—a key element of the divine presence model. Gregory is also the most prominent patristic advocate of apokatastasis (universal restoration), making this work essential for understanding both the divine presence model and the universalist hope.
Gregory of Nyssa, Saint. The Life of Moses. Translated by Abraham J. Malherbe and Everett Ferguson. New York and Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 1978. Gregory develops the idea that growth in holiness and likeness to God is a never-ending process—a concept known as epektasis. Manis draws on this idea in his discussion of theosis (divinization) and the ongoing deepening of communion between God and the saints in the new creation.
Hierotheos (Vlachos), Metropolitan of Nafpaktos. Life after Death. Translated by Esther Williams. Levadia-Hellas, Greece: Birth of the Theotokos Monastery, 2000. A modern Orthodox treatment of the afterlife that develops the divine presence model in detail. Hierotheos teaches that light has two properties—illuminating and caustic—and that those with spiritual sight enjoy God’s presence while those without it experience the same presence as burning torment. Manis draws on Hierotheos extensively.
Hopko, Thomas. The Orthodox Faith: An Elementary Handbook on the Orthodox Church. Vol. IV: Spirituality. New York: Department of Religious Education, Orthodox Church in America, 1976. Hopko’s handbook, endorsed by the Orthodox Church in America, contains one of the clearest modern Orthodox statements of the divine presence model. He teaches that the fire which consumes sinners and the fire which shines with splendor in the saints is the same fire—the fire of God’s love. His presentation is quoted extensively by Manis.
Isaac the Syrian (Isaac of Nineveh), Saint. The Ascetical Homilies of Saint Isaac the Syrian. Translated by Dana Miller. Brookline, MA: Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 2011. Isaac’s Homily 84 contains what is perhaps the most famous patristic statement of the divine presence model: those in hell are “scourged by love,” and it is not right to say that sinners are deprived of God’s love. Love acts in two ways—as suffering in the reproved and as joy in the blessed. This passage is cited by virtually every advocate of the divine presence model.
Lossky, Vladimir. The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1976. Lossky’s classic work explains the Eastern Orthodox understanding of theosis (divinization) and the distinction between God’s essence and His energies. His statement that “the love of God will be an intolerable torment for those who have not acquired it within themselves” is one of the key modern Orthodox expressions of the divine presence model.
Maximus the Confessor, Saint. Various works. In Maximus the Confessor: Selected Writings, translated by George C. Berthold. New York and Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 1985. Maximus teaches that the same divine energy produces different effects depending on the disposition of the one who receives it. This idea is central to the divine presence model’s claim that the difference between heaven and hell lies in the human heart, not in God.
Peter the Damascene, Saint. In The Philokalia, vol. 3. Translated by G. E. H. Palmer, Philip Sherrard, and Kallistos Ware. London: Faber and Faber, 1984. Peter teaches that God’s fire makes some soft like beeswax and others hard like stone—a vivid image of how the same divine love can produce opposite effects depending on the condition of the soul.
Puhalo, Archbishop Lazar. On the Nature of Heaven and Hell According to the Holy Fathers. Dewdney, Canada: Synaxis, 1995. A concise collection of patristic quotations on the nature of heaven and hell, organized to demonstrate the consensus of the Eastern Fathers that both are experienced in the presence of God. A useful reference for anyone wanting quick access to the relevant patristic texts.
Symeon the New Theologian, Saint. The Discourses. Translated by C. J. de Catanzaro. New York and Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 1980. Symeon’s Discourse 78 asks where anyone can flee from God’s face—echoing Psalm 139—and concludes that since there is no escape from God’s presence, we should give ourselves freely to Him. His writings reinforce the divine presence model’s insistence on God’s inescapable omnipresence.
Ware, Kallistos. The Orthodox Way. Revised edition. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1995. Bishop Ware provides an accessible introduction to Orthodox theology, including the Orthodox understanding of the afterlife. He affirms the patristic teaching that the fire of hell is the fire of God’s love experienced as torment by those who reject it, while maintaining a careful agnosticism about whether all will eventually be saved.
Adams, Marilyn McCord. Horrendous Evils and the Goodness of God. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999. Adams argues that a good God must ensure that every person’s life is, on the whole, worth living—a claim with profound implications for the doctrine of hell. Her concept of “horrendous evils” raises the question of whether eternal conscious torment could ever be consistent with divine goodness.
Kvanvig, Jonathan L. The Problem of Hell. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. An important philosophical treatment that challenges the traditional doctrine of hell on moral grounds. Kvanvig argues that the traditional view of hell as eternal conscious torment is morally objectionable and defends a mild form of annihilationism. He occasionally gestures toward elements of the divine presence model without developing them. A rigorous and careful work that helped define the modern philosophical debate.
Stump, Eleonore. Wandering in Darkness: Narrative and the Problem of Suffering. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Although primarily about suffering, Stump’s work engages the question of hell and its relationship to divine love. She draws on Thomas Aquinas and the concept of God’s desire for union with each person. Her use of narrative to illuminate philosophical problems models the kind of accessible philosophy this book attempts.
Walls, Jerry L. Hell: The Logic of Damnation. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992. Walls develops the most sophisticated philosophical version of the “choice model” of hell, arguing that the damned freely choose to reject God. Drawing on Kierkegaard, he argues that sin can become a source of continuity for a person’s identity, providing a motive for choosing damnation. In his later work, Walls increasingly incorporates elements of the divine presence model, noting the Orthodox tradition that fire is a symbol of God’s presence, not His absence.
Walls, Jerry L. Heaven, Hell, and Purgatory: Rethinking the Things That Matter Most. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2015. A popular-level summary of Walls’s scholarly work that explicitly endorses key elements of the divine presence model. Walls connects the biblical image of fire with the divine presence and quotes David Bentley Hart on the Orthodox tradition that makes no distinction between the fire of hell and the light of God’s glory. An important bridge between the choice model and the divine presence model.
Walls, Jerry L., ed. The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. A comprehensive reference work covering every major aspect of Christian eschatology. Andrew Louth’s chapter on “Eastern Orthodox Eschatology” is especially relevant, providing a scholarly overview of the Orthodox understanding of the afterlife and its connection to the divine presence model.
Crockett, William, ed. Four Views on Hell. Counterpoints: Bible and Theology. Second edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016. An essential multi-view volume presenting the literal (Walvoord), metaphorical (Crockett), purgatorial (Hayes/Walls), and conditional/universalist (Pinnock/Parry) perspectives on hell. The second edition replaces some contributors and adds Robin Parry’s universalist essay, which includes a thoughtful discussion of fire as divine presence. Zachary Hayes’s chapter on the purgatorial view (first edition) connects Gregory of Nyssa’s theology with a divine presence understanding of purification.
Fudge, Edward William, and Robert A. Peterson. Two Views of Hell: A Biblical and Theological Dialogue. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2000. A point-counterpoint dialogue between a conditionalist (Fudge) and a traditionalist (Peterson). Fudge traces the introduction of the immortality of the soul into Christian theology through the apologists who came from Greek philosophy, arguing that the biblical writers never teach innate immortality. Peterson defends eternal conscious torment from Scripture and tradition. A useful resource for understanding both sides of the ECT-versus-CI debate.
Gregg, Steve, ed. Hell: Three Christian Views of God’s Final Solution to the Problem of Sin. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2013. A balanced multi-view treatment presenting three perspectives on hell. Useful as a survey of the range of evangelical positions on final punishment.
Morgan, Christopher W., and Robert A. Peterson, eds. Hell under Fire: Modern Scholarship Reinvents Eternal Punishment. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2004. A collection of essays defending the traditional view of eternal conscious torment against modern challenges. R. Albert Mohler’s essay on the “disappearance of hell” in modern theology attempts to minimize the significance of alternatives to ECT in the early church—a claim that this book challenges at length.
Shedd, William G. T. The Doctrine of Endless Punishment. 1886. Reprint, Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 1986. A classic 19th-century defense of eternal conscious torment that exercised enormous influence on Protestant theology. Shedd argues that ECT was the consensus of the church from the earliest centuries—a claim that recent scholarship has called into serious question, particularly regarding the Eastern Fathers of the first five centuries.
Date, Christopher M., Gregory G. Stump, and Joshua W. Anderson, eds. Rethinking Hell: Readings in Evangelical Conditionalism. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2014. A collection of essays making the case for conditional immortality from within evangelical Christianity. Peter Grice’s introductory essay, “Igniting an Evangelical Conversation,” traces the growing acceptance of conditionalism among evangelicals. A valuable resource for understanding the movement.
Fudge, Edward William. The Fire That Consumes: A Biblical and Historical Study of the Doctrine of Final Punishment. Third edition. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2011. The most comprehensive biblical and historical case for conditional immortality. Fudge surveys every relevant passage in both Testaments and argues that the overwhelming testimony of Scripture is that the wicked will be destroyed, not tormented forever. His historical survey demonstrates that annihilationism was a live option in the early church. A landmark work in the field.
Pinnock, Clark. “Fire, Then Nothing.” Christianity Today, March 20, 1987, 40–41. A brief but influential article in which a prominent evangelical theologian publicly endorsed conditional immortality for the first time. Pinnock’s willingness to break with the traditional view helped open the door for other evangelicals to reconsider their position on hell.
Stott, John R. W., and David L. Edwards. Evangelical Essentials: A Liberal-Evangelical Dialogue. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1988. Notable for Stott’s cautious but clear statement that he found the traditional view of eternal conscious torment “intolerable” and that he leaned toward annihilationism. Coming from one of the most respected evangelical leaders of the 20th century, this admission sent shockwaves through evangelicalism and remains an important moment in the history of the debate.
Balthasar, Hans Urs von. Dare We Hope “That All Men Be Saved”? Translated by David Kipp and Lothar Krauth. San Francisco: Ignatius, 1988. The Catholic theologian carefully distinguishes between the dogmatic assertion that all will be saved (which he rejects) and the permissible Christian hope that all may be saved (which he defends). Balthasar’s careful distinction between assertion and hope has been influential across traditions, including among evangelicals wrestling with the CI-versus-UR question.
Beauchemin, Gerry. Hope Beyond Hell: The Righteous Purpose of God’s Judgment. Olmito, TX: Malista, 2007. A popular-level case for universal reconciliation that surveys the biblical evidence, the meaning of aion (age) in Greek, and the testimony of the early Church Fathers. Beauchemin provides an extensive appendix of patristic quotations supporting universalism, including from Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory Nazianzen, Athanasius, Ambrose, and Didymus. Accessible and passionate, if not always academically rigorous.
Hart, David Bentley. That All Shall Be Saved: Heaven, Hell, and Universal Salvation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019. A bold and uncompromising philosophical and theological case for universalism by one of the most brilliant Orthodox theologians writing today. Hart argues that any final state in which even one creature remains in torment or is annihilated is incompatible with the goodness of God. His prose is magnificent, his arguments are fierce, and whether or not one agrees with his conclusion, his challenge must be taken seriously.
Hart, David Bentley. The Beauty of the Infinite: The Aesthetics of Christian Truth. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003. Contains Hart’s earlier statement on the Orthodox tradition that “makes no distinction, essentially, between the fire of hell and the light of God’s glory, and that interprets damnation as the soul’s resistance to the beauty of God’s glory.” This formulation is quoted by both Manis and Walls.
Parry, Robin (Gregory MacDonald, pseud.). The Evangelical Universalist. Second edition. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2012. The most careful evangelical case for universalism, written under a pseudonym and later published under the author’s real name. Parry argues that universalism is not only compatible with evangelical theology but is, in fact, the best reading of Scripture’s overall narrative arc. He engages the key biblical texts with care and interacts with the strongest objections.
Phillips, Michael. What If Hell Is God’s, Not the Devil’s? Rethinking Christianity’s Most Controversial Doctrine. Sunrise Wise Path Books, 2026. A revised edition of Phillips’s earlier George MacDonald and the Late Great Hell Debate. Phillips draws heavily on George MacDonald’s theology to argue that God’s fire is remedial and that hell is God’s workshop, not the devil’s dungeon. His treatment of the Greek words aionios and kolasis is especially valuable for the lay reader. Written in a warm, conversational style.
Talbott, Thomas. The Inescapable Love of God. Second edition. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2014. A rigorous philosophical argument for universalism. Talbott argues that no rational person would choose eternal misery if they truly understood what they were choosing, and that God can remove the ignorance and deception that lead to sin without overriding freedom. Manis engages Talbott’s arguments at length in Sinners in the Presence of a Loving God, offering a sustained critique from within the divine presence framework.
Cooper, John W. Body, Soul, and Life Everlasting: Biblical Anthropology and the Monism-Dualism Debate. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000. The most thorough biblical and philosophical defense of substance dualism and the conscious intermediate state from an evangelical perspective. Cooper argues that the Old and New Testaments both assume a dualist anthropology in which the soul survives the death of the body. Essential background for this book’s argument that the intermediate state is real and conscious.
Moreland, J. P. The Soul: How We Know It’s Real and Why It Matters. Chicago: Moody, 2014. A philosopher’s defense of the reality of the immaterial soul, aimed at a popular audience. Moreland argues that consciousness, free will, and personal identity all point to the existence of a non-physical soul that survives bodily death. Relevant for this book’s affirmation of substance dualism and its critique of physicalist anthropology.
Wright, N. T. Surprised by Hope: Rethinking Heaven, the Resurrection, and the Mission of the Church. New York: HarperOne, 2008. Wright emphasizes the bodily resurrection as the Christian hope rather than a disembodied afterlife. While he downplays the intermediate state in favor of the final resurrection, his work is valuable for its insistence that the new creation—not escape from the physical world—is the heart of the biblical promise. His treatment challenges overly Platonic views of the soul while remaining compatible with a robust intermediate state.
Brock, Rita Nakashima, and Rebecca Ann Parker. Saving Paradise: How Christianity Traded Love of This World for Crucifixion and Empire. Boston: Beacon, 2008. Brock and Parker trace how early Christian art focused on paradise, resurrection, and life rather than on crucifixion and suffering, arguing that the emphasis on divine violence is a later development. Baker draws on their work to challenge the idea that God requires violence and retribution to deal with sin.
Girard, René. I See Satan Fall Like Lightning. Translated by James G. Williams. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2001. Girard’s mimetic theory argues that human societies create scapegoats to channel their violence and that the cross of Christ exposes and overturns this mechanism. Baker draws on Girard’s insights to argue that God is not the source of violence and that the atonement reveals God’s character as nonviolent, forgiving love.
Weaver, J. Denny. The Nonviolent Atonement. Second edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2011. Weaver argues that the dominant Western theories of atonement (satisfaction, penal substitution) import violence into the character of God and that a nonviolent reading of the atonement is more faithful to Scripture and the early church. His Christus Victor model emphasizes Christ’s victory over sin, death, and the powers of evil. Relevant to Baker’s argument that God’s justice is restorative rather than retributive.
Lewis, C. S. The Great Divorce. 1946. Reprint, New York: HarperOne, 2001. Lewis’s imaginative novella depicts hell as a gray, dreary city whose inhabitants are free to visit heaven but find its reality unbearable. The book powerfully illustrates the idea that the damned choose hell and that the same reality (heaven, God’s presence) is experienced differently depending on the condition of the heart. Manis notes that elements of the divine presence model are present in Lewis’s work, even though Lewis does not develop them systematically.
Lewis, C. S. The Problem of Pain. 1940. Reprint, New York: HarperOne, 2001. Lewis’s chapter on hell is one of the most widely read defenses of the choice model. He argues that the door of hell is locked from the inside and that God respects human freedom even when it leads to damnation. While Lewis is often read as a traditionalist, Manis shows that his emphasis on the self-imposed nature of hell shares key features with the divine presence model.
MacDonald, George. Unspoken Sermons. Three series. 1867, 1885, 1889. Various reprints. MacDonald’s sermons contain some of the most eloquent and passionate arguments for the remedial nature of God’s fire in the English language. He teaches that God’s consuming fire is His love, which burns only at a distance—the further from God, the more it hurts. Phillips draws extensively on MacDonald’s theology in What If Hell Is God’s, Not the Devil’s?
Bauckham, Richard J. “Universalism: A Historical Survey.” Themelios 4, no. 2 (September 1978): 47–54. A concise survey of universalism in the history of Christianity, from the early church through the modern period. Bauckham documents the prevalence of universalist thought among the Greek-speaking Fathers of the first five centuries, providing important historical context for the claim that ECT was not the unchallenged consensus of the early church.
Hanson, John Wesley. Universalism: The Prevailing Doctrine of the Christian Church During Its First Five Hundred Years. Boston: Universalist Publishing, 1899. A classic historical study arguing that universalism, not eternal conscious torment, was the dominant view of the early church for its first five centuries. While some of Hanson’s claims have been challenged by more recent scholarship, his documentation of patristic support for universalism remains valuable.
Hayes, Zachary. “The Purgatorial View.” In Four Views on Hell, edited by Stanley N. Gundry and William Crockett, 91–118. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996. Hayes draws on the Eastern Fathers, especially Gregory of Nyssa, to develop a purgatorial understanding of the afterlife. He notes Gregory’s teaching that it is the reality of sin and guilt in the person that makes the divine attraction itself painful—a key insight for the divine presence model.
Ramelli, Ilaria L. E. The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis: A Critical Assessment from the New Testament to Eriugena. Leiden: Brill, 2013. The most comprehensive scholarly study of apokatastasis (universal restoration) in the early church. Ramelli traces the doctrine from the New Testament through the Greek Fathers, arguing that it was a mainstream, not marginal, position in the early centuries. An enormous and invaluable work for understanding the historical roots of universalism.
Beecher, Edward. History of Opinions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Retribution. New York: D. Appleton, 1878. Reprint, New York: Forgotten Books, 2012. Beecher, son of the famous preacher Lyman Beecher, provides a detailed study of how the biblical words for punishment, judgment, and eternity were understood in the ancient world. His analysis of aionios (often translated “eternal”) as referring to an age rather than to infinite duration has been influential in both conditionalist and universalist circles.
Konstan, David. “Terms for Eternity: Aiônios and Aïdios in Classical and Christian Texts.” In Rethinking Hell: Readings in Evangelical Conditionalism, edited by Christopher M. Date, Gregory G. Stump, and Joshua W. Anderson. Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2014. Konstan, a classicist, argues that aionios in ancient Greek does not inherently mean “eternal” in the sense of infinite duration, but rather “pertaining to an age.” This linguistic argument is important for both conditionalist and universalist readings of passages like Matthew 25:46.
Evans, C. Stephen, and R. Zachary Manis. Philosophy of Religion: Thinking about Faith. Second edition. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009. A widely used textbook that provides philosophical context for the questions addressed in this book, including the problem of evil, the nature of God, and the problem of hell. Co-authored by Manis, it reflects the same careful, accessible philosophical approach that characterizes his work on the divine presence model.
Grenz, Stanley J. Theology for the Community of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; and Vancouver: Regent College, 2000. A systematic theology that takes seriously the communal and relational dimensions of Christian doctrine. Grenz’s eschatology emphasizes the new creation and the final consummation, providing theological context for the divine presence model’s claim that God will be “all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28).
Kierkegaard, Søren. The Sickness unto Death. Edited and translated by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980. Kierkegaard’s profound analysis of despair as a sickness of the self is drawn upon by both Walls and Manis to explain how sin can become a defining feature of a person’s identity. His account of the “demonic” form of despair—the willful refusal to be healed—illuminates the choice model’s claim that some may reject God forever.
Plantinga, Alvin. The Nature of Necessity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974. Plantinga’s classic work in analytic philosophy includes his famous free will defense against the problem of evil. His concept of “transworld depravity”—the idea that in every possible world, some creatures freely choose to do wrong—has implications for the question of whether God can guarantee that all will be saved without overriding creaturely freedom. Discussed by Kvanvig and Talbott.